Eldridge Moores: He Looked at a Jumble of Rocks and Saw the Sierra Being Born
Geologic Highlights of California's New National Monument
Using 3D Visualization, Geologists Explore the Complex Areas Where Faults Join and Split
Yosemite's Tuolumne Meadows: A Long-standing Geological Puzzle
New Evidence of Earth’s Deep Water Cycle Reveals A Virtual Buried Ocean
50 Years Ago, Alaskan Earthquake Was Key Event for Earth Science
The Next New Madrid Earthquake: Busy Being Born, Not Busy Dying
Pakistan's New Earthquake Island: Can It Happen Here?
How California's Warping Microplate Makes Its Faults Creep
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He died in late October, but the longtime UC Davis professor and field researcher left a permanent mark on geology and a gaping hole in the hearts of those who admired him.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Moores was known as a man of the field but one of my most indelible memories of Eldridge was in his living room in Davis. Here was this near-octogenarian crawling around on all fours, unrolling giant geological maps, slipping off his shoes to weigh down the corners, then pointing out with obvious enthusiasm that the blue areas were rocks as much as 500 million years old — the oldest rocks in the Sierra Nevada.\u003c/p>\n\u003cfigure id=\"attachment_1935835\" class=\"wp-caption aligncenter\" style=\"max-width: 2000px\">\u003ca href=\"https://ww2.kqed.org/science/wp-content/uploads/sites/35/2018/12/IMG_6858.jpg\">\u003cimg loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" class=\"size-full wp-image-1935835\" src=\"https://ww2.kqed.org/science/wp-content/uploads/sites/35/2018/12/IMG_6858.jpg\" alt=\"Photo: Moores with map on floor\" width=\"2000\" height=\"1500\" srcset=\"https://cdn.kqed.org/wp-content/uploads/sites/35/2018/12/IMG_6858.jpg 2000w, https://cdn.kqed.org/wp-content/uploads/sites/35/2018/12/IMG_6858-160x120.jpg 160w, https://cdn.kqed.org/wp-content/uploads/sites/35/2018/12/IMG_6858-800x600.jpg 800w, https://cdn.kqed.org/wp-content/uploads/sites/35/2018/12/IMG_6858-768x576.jpg 768w, https://cdn.kqed.org/wp-content/uploads/sites/35/2018/12/IMG_6858-1020x765.jpg 1020w, https://cdn.kqed.org/wp-content/uploads/sites/35/2018/12/IMG_6858-1200x900.jpg 1200w, https://cdn.kqed.org/wp-content/uploads/sites/35/2018/12/IMG_6858-1920x1440.jpg 1920w, https://cdn.kqed.org/wp-content/uploads/sites/35/2018/12/IMG_6858-1180x885.jpg 1180w, https://cdn.kqed.org/wp-content/uploads/sites/35/2018/12/IMG_6858-960x720.jpg 960w, https://cdn.kqed.org/wp-content/uploads/sites/35/2018/12/IMG_6858-240x180.jpg 240w, https://cdn.kqed.org/wp-content/uploads/sites/35/2018/12/IMG_6858-375x281.jpg 375w, https://cdn.kqed.org/wp-content/uploads/sites/35/2018/12/IMG_6858-520x390.jpg 520w\" sizes=\"(max-width: 2000px) 100vw, 2000px\">\u003c/a>\u003cfigcaption class=\"wp-caption-text\">Moores in 2017, poring over geology maps in his Davis living room. \u003ccite>(Craig Miller/KQED)\u003c/cite>\u003c/figcaption>\u003c/figure>\n\u003cp>\u003cstrong>‘Incompetent’ Rock\u003c/strong>\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>I got another dose of that enduring youthfulness two years ago, chasing after him as he led me — at a brisk pace — down to the Yuba River bank. We were in search of the kind of \u003ca href=\"https://www.kqed.org/science/1537071/how-incompetent-rock-led-to-the-oroville-dam-crisis\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\">“incompetent” rock\u003c/a> that contributed to the \u003ca href=\"https://www.kqed.org/science/1918649/report-long-term-systemic-failure-led-to-oroville-dam-crisis\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\">catastrophic collapse\u003c/a> of two spillways at Oroville Dam.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>“You can just dig it,” he said, as he hammered away at a patch of rusty-brown, flaky stone. “It’s on its way to becoming dirt.”\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>It turns out that weathered rock and rushing water are a poor combination for keeping dams in place.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Apart from his boundless energy, Moores’ real gift was his vision: his ability to “see” geologic history in a pile of rocks. He was one of the first to look at a jumble of stone and see in that the literal construction of the Sierra Nevada — the forces that made these mountains over hundreds of millions of years.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>[youtube https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=hoPb8GrhWSM&w=560&h=315]\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003cstrong>Pillows of Ocean Lava in the Mountains of California\u003c/strong>\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Twenty-five years ago, author John McPhee trailed Moores around the Sierra for his book “\u003ca href=\"http://movies2.nytimes.com/books/98/07/05/specials/mcphee-california.html\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\">Assembling California\u003c/a>\u003ci>.”\u003c/i> In it, Moores reveals how the Sierra Nevada range didn’t just pop up from the Earth’s crust, as geologists long thought; rather, the building blocks bubbled up from faraway rifts in the ocean floor called “spreading centers,” then transported thousands of miles on moving plates and piled up onto the North American continent.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>In March of last year, Moores and I drove into the foothills of Yuba County, where the whole process is laid bare in road cuts along Highway 20. Moores would pull over and dodge the trucks roaring by to show me smooth, black, ocean remnants called \u003ca href=\"https://volcanoes.usgs.gov/vsc/glossary/pillow_lava.html\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\">pillow lavas\u003c/a> bulging from the hillsides, and vertical layers of “\u003ca href=\"https://www.sandatlas.org/sheeted-dikes-of-the-troodos-ophiolite/\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\">sheeted dikes\u003c/a>” striping the rock face. Moores is the one who decoded all this.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>“It’s a forensic exercise,” he explained. “You’re dealing with an experiment which you didn’t design and is still going on. And you have no eyewitnesses to the processes when they went on 160 million years ago.”\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>While the notion had already been around for a century, the concept of plate tectonics was still a tough sell when Moores began his career in the 1950s.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>“Oh, there was lots of resistance,” Moores recalled.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>[ad fullwidth]\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003cstrong>A Seismic Shift\u003c/strong>\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>In 1969, Neil Armstrong hopped down from his lunar module and declared a “giant leap for mankind.” Later that year, a lesser-known leap occurred when geologists gathered at Pacific Grove’s Asilomar conference center. At Asilomar, scientists began to unpack the mechanics of plate tectonics, the idea that the Earth’s crust is constantly moving, kind of floating around on a molten sea, miles below the surface.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>“It was a very exciting time. I still get goosebumps even talking about it,” Moores recalled for me in 2017. “A turning point, I think it was, in the plate tectonic revolution, that was the watershed of geology.”\u003cb>\u003cbr>\n\u003c/b>\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>That “watershed” now informs much of what we know about earthquakes, volcanoes, and how today’s continents were formed.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Moores would eventually compile an eye-popping resumé: editor of Geology magazine by the 1980s, head of the Geological Society of America in the ’90s, and recipient of numerous awards\u003cstrong>, \u003c/strong>though some of his early work on tectonics wasn’t universally embraced.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>“That didn’t exactly win over anybody very quickly,” Moores recalled, about an early paper he wrote during that time. “In fact, some people published an article saying, ‘We see no need for this.’ But they were wrong, I think.”\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003cstrong>Supercontinents\u003c/strong>\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>In fact, the whole idea of continental drift — that there was one enormous “supercontinent” \u003ca href=\"https://www.livescience.com/38218-facts-about-pangaea.html\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\">called Pangea\u003c/a> before it broke apart into the half-dozen we know today — got a major boost from Moores’ work.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Michael Oskin, who fills Moore’s old seat as chair of the UC Davis geology department, says it was Moores who discovered that rocks in Antarctica were identical to some in the southwestern U.S. That led to defining an even earlier mass, now \u003ca href=\"https://www.burkemuseum.org/geo_history_wa/Dance%20of%20the%20Giant%20Continents.htm\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\">called Rodinia\u003c/a>, that broke up about 700 million years ago and reformed as Pangea.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>“There’s an old saying that every scientific truth goes through three stages,” he told me. “First people say it conflicts with the Bible, [by which he meant conventional scientific views], and then they say it’s been discovered before, and finally they say they always knew it.”\u003c/p>\n\u003cfigure id=\"attachment_1935825\" class=\"wp-caption alignright\" style=\"max-width: 1280px\">\u003ca href=\"https://ww2.kqed.org/science/wp-content/uploads/sites/35/2018/12/IMG_6887-1.jpg\">\u003cimg loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" class=\"size-full wp-image-1935825\" src=\"https://ww2.kqed.org/science/wp-content/uploads/sites/35/2018/12/IMG_6887-1.jpg\" alt=\"Photo: Eldridge Moores poses with the reporter.\" width=\"1280\" height=\"960\" srcset=\"https://cdn.kqed.org/wp-content/uploads/sites/35/2018/12/IMG_6887-1.jpg 1280w, https://cdn.kqed.org/wp-content/uploads/sites/35/2018/12/IMG_6887-1-160x120.jpg 160w, https://cdn.kqed.org/wp-content/uploads/sites/35/2018/12/IMG_6887-1-800x600.jpg 800w, https://cdn.kqed.org/wp-content/uploads/sites/35/2018/12/IMG_6887-1-768x576.jpg 768w, https://cdn.kqed.org/wp-content/uploads/sites/35/2018/12/IMG_6887-1-1020x765.jpg 1020w, https://cdn.kqed.org/wp-content/uploads/sites/35/2018/12/IMG_6887-1-1200x900.jpg 1200w, https://cdn.kqed.org/wp-content/uploads/sites/35/2018/12/IMG_6887-1-1180x885.jpg 1180w, https://cdn.kqed.org/wp-content/uploads/sites/35/2018/12/IMG_6887-1-960x720.jpg 960w, https://cdn.kqed.org/wp-content/uploads/sites/35/2018/12/IMG_6887-1-240x180.jpg 240w, https://cdn.kqed.org/wp-content/uploads/sites/35/2018/12/IMG_6887-1-375x281.jpg 375w, https://cdn.kqed.org/wp-content/uploads/sites/35/2018/12/IMG_6887-1-520x390.jpg 520w\" sizes=\"(max-width: 1280px) 100vw, 1280px\">\u003c/a>\u003cfigcaption class=\"wp-caption-text\">Couldn’t resist: my selfie with the affable legend. \u003ccite>(Craig Miller/KQED)\u003c/cite>\u003c/figcaption>\u003c/figure>\n\u003cp>Moores once told McPhee that he saw his work not as a solo but an orchestral piece. At a packed memorial service in November, friends and colleagues called him a “Renaissance man.” True enough: his work on the forces below us earned him a permanent place in the geological renaissance.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>“I had all this in my head, and I was so excited at the end of that period, I could not stand still,” he told me.\u003cb>\u003cbr>\n\u003c/b>\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Eldridge Moores never really could stand still. He died in late October, while leading a group into the Sierra, sharing his vast knowledge and boundless enthusiasm for his rocks, one last time.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003c/p>\n","blocks":[],"excerpt":"His geological investigative work in the Sierra Nevada helped cement new thinking about how California's predominant mountain range was formed. ","status":"publish","parent":0,"modified":1704927246,"stats":{"hasAudio":false,"hasVideo":true,"hasChartOrMap":false,"iframeSrcs":[],"hasGoogleForm":false,"hasGallery":false,"hasHearkenModule":false,"hasPolis":false,"paragraphCount":30,"wordCount":1087},"headData":{"title":"Eldridge Moores: He Looked at a Jumble of Rocks and Saw the Sierra Being Born | KQED","description":"His geological investigative work in the Sierra Nevada helped cement new thinking about how California's predominant mountain range was formed. ","ogTitle":"","ogDescription":"","ogImgId":"","twTitle":"","twDescription":"","twImgId":""},"source":"Geology","audioUrl":"https://www.kqed.org/.stream/anon/radio//2018/12/181217scienceMoores.mp3","sticky":false,"audioTrackLength":292,"path":"/science/1935668/eldridge-moores-he-looked-at-a-jumble-of-rocks-and-saw-the-sierra-being-born","audioDuration":292000,"parsedContent":[{"type":"contentString","content":"\u003cdiv class=\"post-body\">\u003cp>\u003cp>The new year will mark a half-century since a “seismic” shift in geology unfolded.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Eldridge Moores was a key thinker in that shift. He died in late October, but the longtime UC Davis professor and field researcher left a permanent mark on geology and a gaping hole in the hearts of those who admired him.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Moores was known as a man of the field but one of my most indelible memories of Eldridge was in his living room in Davis. Here was this near-octogenarian crawling around on all fours, unrolling giant geological maps, slipping off his shoes to weigh down the corners, then pointing out with obvious enthusiasm that the blue areas were rocks as much as 500 million years old — the oldest rocks in the Sierra Nevada.\u003c/p>\n\u003cfigure id=\"attachment_1935835\" class=\"wp-caption aligncenter\" style=\"max-width: 2000px\">\u003ca href=\"https://ww2.kqed.org/science/wp-content/uploads/sites/35/2018/12/IMG_6858.jpg\">\u003cimg loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" class=\"size-full wp-image-1935835\" src=\"https://ww2.kqed.org/science/wp-content/uploads/sites/35/2018/12/IMG_6858.jpg\" alt=\"Photo: Moores with map on floor\" width=\"2000\" height=\"1500\" srcset=\"https://cdn.kqed.org/wp-content/uploads/sites/35/2018/12/IMG_6858.jpg 2000w, https://cdn.kqed.org/wp-content/uploads/sites/35/2018/12/IMG_6858-160x120.jpg 160w, https://cdn.kqed.org/wp-content/uploads/sites/35/2018/12/IMG_6858-800x600.jpg 800w, https://cdn.kqed.org/wp-content/uploads/sites/35/2018/12/IMG_6858-768x576.jpg 768w, https://cdn.kqed.org/wp-content/uploads/sites/35/2018/12/IMG_6858-1020x765.jpg 1020w, https://cdn.kqed.org/wp-content/uploads/sites/35/2018/12/IMG_6858-1200x900.jpg 1200w, https://cdn.kqed.org/wp-content/uploads/sites/35/2018/12/IMG_6858-1920x1440.jpg 1920w, https://cdn.kqed.org/wp-content/uploads/sites/35/2018/12/IMG_6858-1180x885.jpg 1180w, https://cdn.kqed.org/wp-content/uploads/sites/35/2018/12/IMG_6858-960x720.jpg 960w, https://cdn.kqed.org/wp-content/uploads/sites/35/2018/12/IMG_6858-240x180.jpg 240w, https://cdn.kqed.org/wp-content/uploads/sites/35/2018/12/IMG_6858-375x281.jpg 375w, https://cdn.kqed.org/wp-content/uploads/sites/35/2018/12/IMG_6858-520x390.jpg 520w\" sizes=\"(max-width: 2000px) 100vw, 2000px\">\u003c/a>\u003cfigcaption class=\"wp-caption-text\">Moores in 2017, poring over geology maps in his Davis living room. \u003ccite>(Craig Miller/KQED)\u003c/cite>\u003c/figcaption>\u003c/figure>\n\u003cp>\u003cstrong>‘Incompetent’ Rock\u003c/strong>\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>I got another dose of that enduring youthfulness two years ago, chasing after him as he led me — at a brisk pace — down to the Yuba River bank. We were in search of the kind of \u003ca href=\"https://www.kqed.org/science/1537071/how-incompetent-rock-led-to-the-oroville-dam-crisis\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\">“incompetent” rock\u003c/a> that contributed to the \u003ca href=\"https://www.kqed.org/science/1918649/report-long-term-systemic-failure-led-to-oroville-dam-crisis\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\">catastrophic collapse\u003c/a> of two spillways at Oroville Dam.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>“You can just dig it,” he said, as he hammered away at a patch of rusty-brown, flaky stone. “It’s on its way to becoming dirt.”\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>It turns out that weathered rock and rushing water are a poor combination for keeping dams in place.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Apart from his boundless energy, Moores’ real gift was his vision: his ability to “see” geologic history in a pile of rocks. He was one of the first to look at a jumble of stone and see in that the literal construction of the Sierra Nevada — the forces that made these mountains over hundreds of millions of years.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003c/p>\u003cp>\u003cspan class='utils-parseShortcode-shortcodes-__youtubeShortcode__embedYoutube'>\n \u003cspan class='utils-parseShortcode-shortcodes-__youtubeShortcode__embedYoutubeInside'>\n \u003ciframe\n loading='lazy'\n class='utils-parseShortcode-shortcodes-__youtubeShortcode__youtubePlayer'\n type='text/html'\n src='//www.youtube.com/embed/hoPb8GrhWSM'\n title='//www.youtube.com/embed/hoPb8GrhWSM'\n allowfullscreen='true'\n style='border:0;'>\u003c/iframe>\n \u003c/span>\n \u003c/span>\u003c/p>\u003cp>\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003cstrong>Pillows of Ocean Lava in the Mountains of California\u003c/strong>\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Twenty-five years ago, author John McPhee trailed Moores around the Sierra for his book “\u003ca href=\"http://movies2.nytimes.com/books/98/07/05/specials/mcphee-california.html\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\">Assembling California\u003c/a>\u003ci>.”\u003c/i> In it, Moores reveals how the Sierra Nevada range didn’t just pop up from the Earth’s crust, as geologists long thought; rather, the building blocks bubbled up from faraway rifts in the ocean floor called “spreading centers,” then transported thousands of miles on moving plates and piled up onto the North American continent.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>In March of last year, Moores and I drove into the foothills of Yuba County, where the whole process is laid bare in road cuts along Highway 20. Moores would pull over and dodge the trucks roaring by to show me smooth, black, ocean remnants called \u003ca href=\"https://volcanoes.usgs.gov/vsc/glossary/pillow_lava.html\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\">pillow lavas\u003c/a> bulging from the hillsides, and vertical layers of “\u003ca href=\"https://www.sandatlas.org/sheeted-dikes-of-the-troodos-ophiolite/\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\">sheeted dikes\u003c/a>” striping the rock face. Moores is the one who decoded all this.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>“It’s a forensic exercise,” he explained. “You’re dealing with an experiment which you didn’t design and is still going on. And you have no eyewitnesses to the processes when they went on 160 million years ago.”\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>While the notion had already been around for a century, the concept of plate tectonics was still a tough sell when Moores began his career in the 1950s.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>“Oh, there was lots of resistance,” Moores recalled.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003c/p>\u003c/div>","attributes":{"named":{},"numeric":[]}},{"type":"component","content":"","name":"ad","attributes":{"named":{"label":"fullwidth"},"numeric":["fullwidth"]}},{"type":"contentString","content":"\u003cdiv class=\"post-body\">\u003cp>\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003cstrong>A Seismic Shift\u003c/strong>\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>In 1969, Neil Armstrong hopped down from his lunar module and declared a “giant leap for mankind.” Later that year, a lesser-known leap occurred when geologists gathered at Pacific Grove’s Asilomar conference center. At Asilomar, scientists began to unpack the mechanics of plate tectonics, the idea that the Earth’s crust is constantly moving, kind of floating around on a molten sea, miles below the surface.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>“It was a very exciting time. I still get goosebumps even talking about it,” Moores recalled for me in 2017. “A turning point, I think it was, in the plate tectonic revolution, that was the watershed of geology.”\u003cb>\u003cbr>\n\u003c/b>\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>That “watershed” now informs much of what we know about earthquakes, volcanoes, and how today’s continents were formed.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Moores would eventually compile an eye-popping resumé: editor of Geology magazine by the 1980s, head of the Geological Society of America in the ’90s, and recipient of numerous awards\u003cstrong>, \u003c/strong>though some of his early work on tectonics wasn’t universally embraced.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>“That didn’t exactly win over anybody very quickly,” Moores recalled, about an early paper he wrote during that time. “In fact, some people published an article saying, ‘We see no need for this.’ But they were wrong, I think.”\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003cstrong>Supercontinents\u003c/strong>\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>In fact, the whole idea of continental drift — that there was one enormous “supercontinent” \u003ca href=\"https://www.livescience.com/38218-facts-about-pangaea.html\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\">called Pangea\u003c/a> before it broke apart into the half-dozen we know today — got a major boost from Moores’ work.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Michael Oskin, who fills Moore’s old seat as chair of the UC Davis geology department, says it was Moores who discovered that rocks in Antarctica were identical to some in the southwestern U.S. That led to defining an even earlier mass, now \u003ca href=\"https://www.burkemuseum.org/geo_history_wa/Dance%20of%20the%20Giant%20Continents.htm\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\">called Rodinia\u003c/a>, that broke up about 700 million years ago and reformed as Pangea.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>“There’s an old saying that every scientific truth goes through three stages,” he told me. “First people say it conflicts with the Bible, [by which he meant conventional scientific views], and then they say it’s been discovered before, and finally they say they always knew it.”\u003c/p>\n\u003cfigure id=\"attachment_1935825\" class=\"wp-caption alignright\" style=\"max-width: 1280px\">\u003ca href=\"https://ww2.kqed.org/science/wp-content/uploads/sites/35/2018/12/IMG_6887-1.jpg\">\u003cimg loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" class=\"size-full wp-image-1935825\" src=\"https://ww2.kqed.org/science/wp-content/uploads/sites/35/2018/12/IMG_6887-1.jpg\" alt=\"Photo: Eldridge Moores poses with the reporter.\" width=\"1280\" height=\"960\" srcset=\"https://cdn.kqed.org/wp-content/uploads/sites/35/2018/12/IMG_6887-1.jpg 1280w, https://cdn.kqed.org/wp-content/uploads/sites/35/2018/12/IMG_6887-1-160x120.jpg 160w, https://cdn.kqed.org/wp-content/uploads/sites/35/2018/12/IMG_6887-1-800x600.jpg 800w, https://cdn.kqed.org/wp-content/uploads/sites/35/2018/12/IMG_6887-1-768x576.jpg 768w, https://cdn.kqed.org/wp-content/uploads/sites/35/2018/12/IMG_6887-1-1020x765.jpg 1020w, https://cdn.kqed.org/wp-content/uploads/sites/35/2018/12/IMG_6887-1-1200x900.jpg 1200w, https://cdn.kqed.org/wp-content/uploads/sites/35/2018/12/IMG_6887-1-1180x885.jpg 1180w, https://cdn.kqed.org/wp-content/uploads/sites/35/2018/12/IMG_6887-1-960x720.jpg 960w, https://cdn.kqed.org/wp-content/uploads/sites/35/2018/12/IMG_6887-1-240x180.jpg 240w, https://cdn.kqed.org/wp-content/uploads/sites/35/2018/12/IMG_6887-1-375x281.jpg 375w, https://cdn.kqed.org/wp-content/uploads/sites/35/2018/12/IMG_6887-1-520x390.jpg 520w\" sizes=\"(max-width: 1280px) 100vw, 1280px\">\u003c/a>\u003cfigcaption class=\"wp-caption-text\">Couldn’t resist: my selfie with the affable legend. \u003ccite>(Craig Miller/KQED)\u003c/cite>\u003c/figcaption>\u003c/figure>\n\u003cp>Moores once told McPhee that he saw his work not as a solo but an orchestral piece. At a packed memorial service in November, friends and colleagues called him a “Renaissance man.” True enough: his work on the forces below us earned him a permanent place in the geological renaissance.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>“I had all this in my head, and I was so excited at the end of that period, I could not stand still,” he told me.\u003cb>\u003cbr>\n\u003c/b>\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Eldridge Moores never really could stand still. He died in late October, while leading a group into the Sierra, sharing his vast knowledge and boundless enthusiasm for his rocks, one last time.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003c/p>\n\u003c/div>\u003c/p>","attributes":{"named":{},"numeric":[]}}],"link":"/science/1935668/eldridge-moores-he-looked-at-a-jumble-of-rocks-and-saw-the-sierra-being-born","authors":["221"],"categories":["science_38","science_40"],"tags":["science_3370","science_3833","science_591","science_109","science_3830"],"featImg":"science_1935823","label":"source_science_1935668"},"science_119774":{"type":"posts","id":"science_119774","meta":{"index":"posts_1591205157","site":"science","id":"119774","score":null,"sort":[1437051604000]},"guestAuthors":[],"slug":"geologic-highlights-of-californias-new-national-monument","title":"Geologic Highlights of California's New National Monument","publishDate":1437051604,"format":"standard","headTitle":"Geologic Highlights of California’s New National Monument | KQED","labelTerm":{"site":"science"},"content":"\u003cp>President Obama’s declaration that a large swath of Coast Range land will become the Berryessa Snow Mountain National Monument pleased a lot of people, including lovers of rocks. The park displays signs of a long sequence of dramatic geologic activity including the clash of tectonic plates, extensive volcanism and the wrenching of modern earthquake faults.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>The area is full of interest for roadside rockhounds and backpacker geologists alike. You can find details for many engaging day trips in the links provided in this story.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>The new national monument stretches nearly 100 miles from north to south, through the eastern part of the Coast Range. For Eldridge Moores at the University of California, Davis — who may well be the current dean of California geology — the area is his geological back yard. As part of the intensive, years-long lobbying and planning effort that led to the new park’s creation, Moores put together the geologic map shown below.\u003c/p>\n\u003cfigure id=\"attachment_119777\" class=\"wp-caption alignright\" style=\"max-width: 600px\">\u003ca href=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/science/wp-content/uploads/sites/35/2015/07/BSMNM-serpvolc.jpg\">\u003cimg loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" class=\"size-full wp-image-119777\" src=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/science/wp-content/uploads/sites/35/2015/07/BSMNM-serpvolc.jpg\" alt=\"Serpentinite mud volcano deposit\" width=\"600\" height=\"397\" srcset=\"https://cdn.kqed.org/wp-content/uploads/sites/35/2015/07/BSMNM-serpvolc.jpg 600w, https://cdn.kqed.org/wp-content/uploads/sites/35/2015/07/BSMNM-serpvolc-400x265.jpg 400w\" sizes=\"(max-width: 600px) 100vw, 600px\">\u003c/a>\u003cfigcaption class=\"wp-caption-text\">Serpentinite boulders, embedded in mud-volcano material, crop out along State Route 128 west of Lake Berryessa. (Andrew Alden/KQED)\u003c/figcaption>\u003c/figure>\n\u003cp>\u003cstrong>Sandstones and Subduction\u003c/strong>\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>The southernmost bit of the national monument, just south of Lake Berryessa, features large, classic outcrops of the tilted-up sandstone beds that make up the western flank of the Central Valley. I highlight them in my tour of \u003ca href=\"http://science.kqed.org/quest/2012/01/26/geological-outings-around-the-bay-mount-vaca-and-the-monticello-dam/\">Mount Vaca and the Monticello Dam\u003c/a>.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>[ad fullwidth]\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>There are many places to inspect an ancient boundary between tectonic plates: a former subduction zone, where rocks of an oceanic precursor of the Pacific Plate plunged beneath the North America Plate. Numerous exposures of serpentine rock from the old seafloor include some rare examples of mud volcanoes, like those found today in the active subduction zone of the Marianas Trench south of Japan.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>More signs of the deep-sea are found in \u003ca href=\"http://geology.about.com/od/fossilstimeevolution/ig/fossil-pictures/fossil-cold-seep.htm\">fossils of cold-seep communities\u003c/a>. These are places on the seafloor where methane and other organic materials rise up through the overlying sediment and support colonies of organisms. The geologic map points out six localities of these uncommon fossils.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003ca href=\"http://science.kqed.org/quest/2012/06/28/side-trips-from-interstate-5-stony-creek-valley/\">Stony Creek Valley\u003c/a>, near the northernmost edge of the new park, is also a good place to explore the old subduction zone where the landscape is wide open and traffic is light.\u003c/p>\n\u003cfigure id=\"attachment_119776\" class=\"wp-caption alignnone\" style=\"max-width: 691px\">\u003ca href=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/science/wp-content/uploads/sites/35/2015/07/BSNMNgeomap.png\">\u003cimg loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" class=\"size-full wp-image-119776\" src=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/science/wp-content/uploads/sites/35/2015/07/BSNMNgeomap.png\" alt=\"Geology of the BSMNM\" width=\"691\" height=\"1000\" srcset=\"https://cdn.kqed.org/wp-content/uploads/sites/35/2015/07/BSNMNgeomap.png 691w, https://cdn.kqed.org/wp-content/uploads/sites/35/2015/07/BSNMNgeomap-400x579.png 400w\" sizes=\"(max-width: 691px) 100vw, 691px\">\u003c/a>\u003cfigcaption class=\"wp-caption-text\">Geology of the Berryessa Snow Mountain National Monument, by Eldridge Moores. (Janice Fong/U.C. Davis)\u003c/figcaption>\u003c/figure>\n\u003cp>\u003cstrong>Volcanoes Old and Young\u003c/strong>\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Real volcanoes are a big part of the national monument. The rocks making up Snow Mountain were once a large undersea volcano. Late in the Mesozoic Era, this underwater mountain was swept into the subduction zone and carried as deep as 20 miles before it resurfaced.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Clear Lake and its surrounding \u003ca href=\"http://science.kqed.org/quest/2011/04/28/bay-area-volcanoes/\">volcanic features\u003c/a> form the backdrop for the central part of the national monument. The heat and chemical activity of volcanism has created notable deposits of \u003ca href=\"http://science.kqed.org/quest/2011/07/21/bay-area-mercury/\">mercury\u003c/a>, gold and other metals across the region.\u003c/p>\n\u003cfigure id=\"attachment_119778\" class=\"wp-caption alignleft\" style=\"max-width: 392px\">\u003ca href=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/science/wp-content/uploads/sites/35/2015/07/BSMNM-clearlake.jpg\">\u003cimg loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" class=\" wp-image-119778\" src=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/science/wp-content/uploads/sites/35/2015/07/BSMNM-clearlake-800x530.jpg\" alt=\"Konocti and mercury mine\" width=\"392\" height=\"260\" srcset=\"https://cdn.kqed.org/wp-content/uploads/sites/35/2015/07/BSMNM-clearlake.jpg 800w, https://cdn.kqed.org/wp-content/uploads/sites/35/2015/07/BSMNM-clearlake-400x265.jpg 400w\" sizes=\"(max-width: 392px) 100vw, 392px\">\u003c/a>\u003cfigcaption class=\"wp-caption-text\">The inactive volcano Mount Konocti overlooks a former mercury mine, now being mitigated, on the east side of Clear Lake. (Andrew Alden/KQED)\u003c/figcaption>\u003c/figure>\n\u003cp>\u003cstrong>Contemporary Tectonics\u003cbr>\n\u003c/strong>\u003cbr>\nState Route 20 crosses the waist of the new park, also passing the north shore of Clear Lake and meeting up with the canyon of Cache Creek. If you take that route, you’ll see the evidence for Clear Lake’s \u003ca href=\"http://science.kqed.org/quest/2012/04/19/the-switching-outlets-of-clear-lake/\">back-and-forth drainage during recent geologic time\u003c/a>.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Active faults of the wide San Andreas fault zone crack their way through the park. Foremost of these is the Bartlett Springs fault, just west of Snow Mountain. Gradually, scientists are mapping bits of more active faults through this remote area, like the \u003ca href=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/science/2015/01/22/when-finding-faults-geologists-must-sometimes-become-ditch-diggers/\">recently discovered Kuikui fault\u003c/a>.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003ca href=\"https://www.whitehouse.gov/the-press-office/2015/07/10/presidential-proclamation-establishment-berryessa-snow-mountain-national\">The President’s proclamation of July 10\u003c/a> is as good an introduction as any to more of the notable features—geological, biological and cultural—in the 330,780 acres of the Berryessa Snow Mountain National Monument. Eldridge Moores goes into deeper geological detail \u003ca href=\"http://protectbsm.com/2015/06/30/the-berryessa-snow-mountain-region-its-remarkable-geologic-features/\">in a post\u003c/a> on the Protect BSM blog.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>The U.S. Forest Service is the lead manager of the national monument and hosts \u003ca href=\"http://www.fs.fed.us/visit/berryessa-snow-mountain-national-monument\">its official website\u003c/a>. More maps, news, and fact sheets can be found at \u003ca href=\"http://berryessasnowmountain.org/\">berryessasnowmountain.org\u003c/a>. And the \u003ca href=\"http://protectbsm.com/\">Protect BSM blog\u003c/a> will give you an appreciation for the dogged, smart activism that was needed to get this land preserved by the President.\u003c/p>\n\n","blocks":[],"excerpt":"Rocks, minerals, faults and fossils star in California's new Berryessa Snow Mountain National Monument.","status":"publish","parent":0,"modified":1704931552,"stats":{"hasAudio":false,"hasVideo":false,"hasChartOrMap":false,"iframeSrcs":[],"hasGoogleForm":false,"hasGallery":false,"hasHearkenModule":false,"hasPolis":false,"paragraphCount":17,"wordCount":713},"headData":{"title":"Geologic Highlights of California's New National Monument | KQED","description":"Rocks, minerals, faults and fossils star in California's new Berryessa Snow Mountain National Monument.","ogTitle":"","ogDescription":"","ogImgId":"","twTitle":"","twDescription":"","twImgId":""},"sticky":false,"path":"/science/119774/geologic-highlights-of-californias-new-national-monument","audioTrackLength":null,"parsedContent":[{"type":"contentString","content":"\u003cdiv class=\"post-body\">\u003cp>\u003cp>President Obama’s declaration that a large swath of Coast Range land will become the Berryessa Snow Mountain National Monument pleased a lot of people, including lovers of rocks. The park displays signs of a long sequence of dramatic geologic activity including the clash of tectonic plates, extensive volcanism and the wrenching of modern earthquake faults.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>The area is full of interest for roadside rockhounds and backpacker geologists alike. You can find details for many engaging day trips in the links provided in this story.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>The new national monument stretches nearly 100 miles from north to south, through the eastern part of the Coast Range. For Eldridge Moores at the University of California, Davis — who may well be the current dean of California geology — the area is his geological back yard. As part of the intensive, years-long lobbying and planning effort that led to the new park’s creation, Moores put together the geologic map shown below.\u003c/p>\n\u003cfigure id=\"attachment_119777\" class=\"wp-caption alignright\" style=\"max-width: 600px\">\u003ca href=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/science/wp-content/uploads/sites/35/2015/07/BSMNM-serpvolc.jpg\">\u003cimg loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" class=\"size-full wp-image-119777\" src=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/science/wp-content/uploads/sites/35/2015/07/BSMNM-serpvolc.jpg\" alt=\"Serpentinite mud volcano deposit\" width=\"600\" height=\"397\" srcset=\"https://cdn.kqed.org/wp-content/uploads/sites/35/2015/07/BSMNM-serpvolc.jpg 600w, https://cdn.kqed.org/wp-content/uploads/sites/35/2015/07/BSMNM-serpvolc-400x265.jpg 400w\" sizes=\"(max-width: 600px) 100vw, 600px\">\u003c/a>\u003cfigcaption class=\"wp-caption-text\">Serpentinite boulders, embedded in mud-volcano material, crop out along State Route 128 west of Lake Berryessa. (Andrew Alden/KQED)\u003c/figcaption>\u003c/figure>\n\u003cp>\u003cstrong>Sandstones and Subduction\u003c/strong>\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>The southernmost bit of the national monument, just south of Lake Berryessa, features large, classic outcrops of the tilted-up sandstone beds that make up the western flank of the Central Valley. I highlight them in my tour of \u003ca href=\"http://science.kqed.org/quest/2012/01/26/geological-outings-around-the-bay-mount-vaca-and-the-monticello-dam/\">Mount Vaca and the Monticello Dam\u003c/a>.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003c/p>\u003c/div>","attributes":{"named":{},"numeric":[]}},{"type":"component","content":"","name":"ad","attributes":{"named":{"label":"fullwidth"},"numeric":["fullwidth"]}},{"type":"contentString","content":"\u003cdiv class=\"post-body\">\u003cp>\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>There are many places to inspect an ancient boundary between tectonic plates: a former subduction zone, where rocks of an oceanic precursor of the Pacific Plate plunged beneath the North America Plate. Numerous exposures of serpentine rock from the old seafloor include some rare examples of mud volcanoes, like those found today in the active subduction zone of the Marianas Trench south of Japan.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>More signs of the deep-sea are found in \u003ca href=\"http://geology.about.com/od/fossilstimeevolution/ig/fossil-pictures/fossil-cold-seep.htm\">fossils of cold-seep communities\u003c/a>. These are places on the seafloor where methane and other organic materials rise up through the overlying sediment and support colonies of organisms. The geologic map points out six localities of these uncommon fossils.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003ca href=\"http://science.kqed.org/quest/2012/06/28/side-trips-from-interstate-5-stony-creek-valley/\">Stony Creek Valley\u003c/a>, near the northernmost edge of the new park, is also a good place to explore the old subduction zone where the landscape is wide open and traffic is light.\u003c/p>\n\u003cfigure id=\"attachment_119776\" class=\"wp-caption alignnone\" style=\"max-width: 691px\">\u003ca href=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/science/wp-content/uploads/sites/35/2015/07/BSNMNgeomap.png\">\u003cimg loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" class=\"size-full wp-image-119776\" src=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/science/wp-content/uploads/sites/35/2015/07/BSNMNgeomap.png\" alt=\"Geology of the BSMNM\" width=\"691\" height=\"1000\" srcset=\"https://cdn.kqed.org/wp-content/uploads/sites/35/2015/07/BSNMNgeomap.png 691w, https://cdn.kqed.org/wp-content/uploads/sites/35/2015/07/BSNMNgeomap-400x579.png 400w\" sizes=\"(max-width: 691px) 100vw, 691px\">\u003c/a>\u003cfigcaption class=\"wp-caption-text\">Geology of the Berryessa Snow Mountain National Monument, by Eldridge Moores. (Janice Fong/U.C. Davis)\u003c/figcaption>\u003c/figure>\n\u003cp>\u003cstrong>Volcanoes Old and Young\u003c/strong>\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Real volcanoes are a big part of the national monument. The rocks making up Snow Mountain were once a large undersea volcano. Late in the Mesozoic Era, this underwater mountain was swept into the subduction zone and carried as deep as 20 miles before it resurfaced.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Clear Lake and its surrounding \u003ca href=\"http://science.kqed.org/quest/2011/04/28/bay-area-volcanoes/\">volcanic features\u003c/a> form the backdrop for the central part of the national monument. The heat and chemical activity of volcanism has created notable deposits of \u003ca href=\"http://science.kqed.org/quest/2011/07/21/bay-area-mercury/\">mercury\u003c/a>, gold and other metals across the region.\u003c/p>\n\u003cfigure id=\"attachment_119778\" class=\"wp-caption alignleft\" style=\"max-width: 392px\">\u003ca href=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/science/wp-content/uploads/sites/35/2015/07/BSMNM-clearlake.jpg\">\u003cimg loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" class=\" wp-image-119778\" src=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/science/wp-content/uploads/sites/35/2015/07/BSMNM-clearlake-800x530.jpg\" alt=\"Konocti and mercury mine\" width=\"392\" height=\"260\" srcset=\"https://cdn.kqed.org/wp-content/uploads/sites/35/2015/07/BSMNM-clearlake.jpg 800w, https://cdn.kqed.org/wp-content/uploads/sites/35/2015/07/BSMNM-clearlake-400x265.jpg 400w\" sizes=\"(max-width: 392px) 100vw, 392px\">\u003c/a>\u003cfigcaption class=\"wp-caption-text\">The inactive volcano Mount Konocti overlooks a former mercury mine, now being mitigated, on the east side of Clear Lake. (Andrew Alden/KQED)\u003c/figcaption>\u003c/figure>\n\u003cp>\u003cstrong>Contemporary Tectonics\u003cbr>\n\u003c/strong>\u003cbr>\nState Route 20 crosses the waist of the new park, also passing the north shore of Clear Lake and meeting up with the canyon of Cache Creek. If you take that route, you’ll see the evidence for Clear Lake’s \u003ca href=\"http://science.kqed.org/quest/2012/04/19/the-switching-outlets-of-clear-lake/\">back-and-forth drainage during recent geologic time\u003c/a>.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Active faults of the wide San Andreas fault zone crack their way through the park. Foremost of these is the Bartlett Springs fault, just west of Snow Mountain. Gradually, scientists are mapping bits of more active faults through this remote area, like the \u003ca href=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/science/2015/01/22/when-finding-faults-geologists-must-sometimes-become-ditch-diggers/\">recently discovered Kuikui fault\u003c/a>.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003ca href=\"https://www.whitehouse.gov/the-press-office/2015/07/10/presidential-proclamation-establishment-berryessa-snow-mountain-national\">The President’s proclamation of July 10\u003c/a> is as good an introduction as any to more of the notable features—geological, biological and cultural—in the 330,780 acres of the Berryessa Snow Mountain National Monument. Eldridge Moores goes into deeper geological detail \u003ca href=\"http://protectbsm.com/2015/06/30/the-berryessa-snow-mountain-region-its-remarkable-geologic-features/\">in a post\u003c/a> on the Protect BSM blog.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>The U.S. Forest Service is the lead manager of the national monument and hosts \u003ca href=\"http://www.fs.fed.us/visit/berryessa-snow-mountain-national-monument\">its official website\u003c/a>. More maps, news, and fact sheets can be found at \u003ca href=\"http://berryessasnowmountain.org/\">berryessasnowmountain.org\u003c/a>. And the \u003ca href=\"http://protectbsm.com/\">Protect BSM blog\u003c/a> will give you an appreciation for the dogged, smart activism that was needed to get this land preserved by the President.\u003c/p>\n\n\u003c/div>\u003c/p>","attributes":{"named":{},"numeric":[]}}],"link":"/science/119774/geologic-highlights-of-californias-new-national-monument","authors":["6228"],"categories":["science_38"],"tags":["science_2166","science_591"],"featImg":"science_119775","label":"science"},"science_24079":{"type":"posts","id":"science_24079","meta":{"index":"posts_1591205157","site":"science","id":"24079","score":null,"sort":[1416515414000]},"guestAuthors":[],"slug":"using-3d-visualization-geologists-explore-the-complex-areas-where-faults-join-and-split","title":"Using 3D Visualization, Geologists Explore the Complex Areas Where Faults Join and Split","publishDate":1416515414,"format":"aside","headTitle":"Using 3D Visualization, Geologists Explore the Complex Areas Where Faults Join and Split | KQED","labelTerm":{"site":"science"},"content":"\u003cfigure id=\"attachment_24080\" class=\"wp-caption aligncenter\" style=\"max-width: 800px\">\u003ca href=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/science/wp-content/uploads/sites/35/2014/11/serpboulder.jpg\">\u003cimg loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" src=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/science/wp-content/uploads/sites/35/2014/11/serpboulder.jpg\" alt=\"Serpentinite\" width=\"800\" height=\"450\" class=\"size-full wp-image-24080\">\u003c/a>\u003cfigcaption class=\"wp-caption-text\">California’s earthquake faults seem to have a close relationship with serpentinite, a slippery stone that lubricates their motions. (Andrew Alden photo)\u003c/figcaption>\u003c/figure>\n\u003cp>On a map of the whole state, the great earthquake faults of California look like a pretty simple set of lines that join and divide in a loose tangle: the San Andreas Fault Zone. But what exactly happens where a fault splits in two? If you cut the map along those lines into wedges and slivers of the Earth’s crust, then try to move them past each other, you can’t make them fit exactly right. How does the Earth do it, and what does that mean for earthquake ruptures in these areas?\u003c/p>\n\u003cfigure id=\"attachment_24081\" class=\"wp-caption aligncenter\" style=\"max-width: 625px\">\u003ca href=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/science/wp-content/uploads/sites/35/2014/11/CAfaults-simple.png\">\u003cimg loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" src=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/science/wp-content/uploads/sites/35/2014/11/CAfaults-simple.png\" alt=\"State fault maps\" width=\"625\" height=\"362\" class=\"size-full wp-image-24081\">\u003c/a>\u003cfigcaption class=\"wp-caption-text\">Extremely simplified maps of our major faults. The places where the San Andreas, Hayward and Calaveras faults meet and join (or split, if you will) are a keen focus of earthquake research. (USGS)\u003c/figcaption>\u003c/figure>\n\u003cp>Geologists have spent the last century mapping the state’s faults and measuring the tectonic ground motions that put stress on them. During that century, they’ve also monitored earthquakes of all sizes (most of them too small to feel) to see precisely where the action is happening on those faults. Only in the last couple of decades have they begun to look at faults in three dimensions. It’s a brain-busting exercise in 3D visualization, using several techniques to provide clues. \u003ca href=\"http://pubs.usgs.gov/sim/3045/\">Our own Hayward fault was an early subject.\u003c/a> A new paper in the journal \u003ci>Tectonics\u003c/i> (\u003ca href=\"http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1002/2014TC003561/abstract\">open access\u003c/a>) has begun to lay bare the intricate buried structure south of Hollister where two major faults come together, the San Andreas and Calaveras faults.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>The work of peeking downward into the crust is slow and labor-intensive, but it’s our only way to check whether our maps are misleading us. It starts by tracing surface rocks downward into the ground, using gravity data and magnetic data to match patterns deep in the crust to confirm that rock units of the right density and magnetic characteristics exist where they’re expected. At the same time, the locations of thousands of tiny earthquakes show where faults are in motion today. Each of these forms of data—gravity, magnetics and seismicity—is fuzzy in its own way, making certainty almost impossible. However, it helps that we have precise data for the Earth’s surface—where the rocks and faults lie and how tectonic forces are moving the landscape. \u003c/p>\n\u003cp>In the \u003ci>Tectonics\u003c/i> paper, Janet Watt and four of her colleagues at the U.S. Geological Survey office in Menlo Park assembled their evidence for the Calaveras–San Andreas junction, in the Coast Range mountains around Pinnacles National Park. Here’s what the faults look like on the map, close up. I’m not showing the rocks because it would be too confusing for anyone but a geologist to enjoy.\u003c/p>\n\u003cfigure id=\"attachment_24082\" class=\"wp-caption aligncenter\" style=\"max-width: 600px\">\u003ca href=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/science/wp-content/uploads/sites/35/2014/11/SAF-Calav-joinmap.png\">\u003cimg loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" src=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/science/wp-content/uploads/sites/35/2014/11/SAF-Calav-joinmap.png\" alt=\"Map of San Andreas-Calaveras join\" width=\"600\" height=\"633\" class=\"size-full wp-image-24082\">\u003c/a>\u003cfigcaption class=\"wp-caption-text\">Red lines are active faults; yellow dots are earthquake locations. H marks the town of Hollister. The three lines X-X’, Y-Y’ and Z-Z’ are cross section shown below. From Figure 1 of the Tectonics paper (USGS)\u003c/figcaption>\u003c/figure>\n\u003cp>Putting together all of the data that I described, the authors built a detailed picture—a model, in scientific-speak—of the region. Here are the three cross-sections of that model. They’re what the model looks like if you sliced it apart along the three lines X-X’, Y-Y’ and Z-Z’.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>[ad fullwidth]\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003ca href=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/science/wp-content/uploads/sites/35/2014/11/profileX-X.png\">\u003cimg loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" src=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/science/wp-content/uploads/sites/35/2014/11/profileX-X.png\" alt=\"profileX-X\" width=\"599\" height=\"425\" class=\"aligncenter size-full wp-image-24083\">\u003c/a>\u003cbr>\n\u003ca href=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/science/wp-content/uploads/sites/35/2014/11/profileY-Y.png\">\u003cimg loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" src=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/science/wp-content/uploads/sites/35/2014/11/profileY-Y.png\" alt=\"profileY-Y\" width=\"599\" height=\"425\" class=\"aligncenter size-full wp-image-24084\">\u003c/a>\u003c/p>\n\u003cfigure id=\"attachment_24085\" class=\"wp-caption aligncenter\" style=\"max-width: 600px\">\u003ca href=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/science/wp-content/uploads/sites/35/2014/11/profileZ-Z.png\">\u003cimg loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" src=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/science/wp-content/uploads/sites/35/2014/11/profileZ-Z.png\" alt=\"Cross sections\" width=\"600\" height=\"425\" class=\"size-full wp-image-24085\">\u003c/a>\u003cfigcaption class=\"wp-caption-text\">Cross sections from Figure 6 of the Tectonics paper. Granite of the Gabilan Range on the left (west), mostly older rocks of the Franciscan complex on the right (east). Black dots are earthquake locations, red lines are active faults (dashed if possibly active).\u003c/figcaption>\u003c/figure>\n\u003cp>The model is quite an achievement. The authors singled out two noteworthy features, shown by the yellow dashed lines. These appear to be deeply hidden active faults that connect the San Andreas and Calaveras faults, transmitting motion between them. Over geologic time, these “cross faults” are very temporary things, but right now they’re important links in the chain of energy that causes our earthquakes. Because earthquakes can spread from one major fault to another, these are the things we need to find if we want to learn our earthquake future.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Another thing the authors point out is the key role of the rock serpentinite, which appears in the model as a usual suspect along these newly traced cross faults. Little did our legislators know how important “serpentine” is when they named it America’s first official state rock, back in 1965.\u003c/p>\n\n","blocks":[],"excerpt":"The cutting edge in earthquake research is mapping our most important faults in three-dimensional detail. A new paper finds some key hidden links in the Bay Area's fault system.","status":"publish","parent":0,"modified":1704932588,"stats":{"hasAudio":false,"hasVideo":false,"hasChartOrMap":false,"iframeSrcs":[],"hasGoogleForm":false,"hasGallery":false,"hasHearkenModule":false,"hasPolis":false,"paragraphCount":10,"wordCount":786},"headData":{"title":"Using 3D Visualization, Geologists Explore the Complex Areas Where Faults Join and Split | KQED","description":"The cutting edge in earthquake research is mapping our most important faults in three-dimensional detail. A new paper finds some key hidden links in the Bay Area's fault system.","ogTitle":"","ogDescription":"","ogImgId":"","twTitle":"","twDescription":"","twImgId":""},"sticky":false,"path":"/science/24079/using-3d-visualization-geologists-explore-the-complex-areas-where-faults-join-and-split","audioTrackLength":null,"parsedContent":[{"type":"contentString","content":"\u003cdiv class=\"post-body\">\u003cp>\u003cfigure id=\"attachment_24080\" class=\"wp-caption aligncenter\" style=\"max-width: 800px\">\u003ca href=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/science/wp-content/uploads/sites/35/2014/11/serpboulder.jpg\">\u003cimg loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" src=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/science/wp-content/uploads/sites/35/2014/11/serpboulder.jpg\" alt=\"Serpentinite\" width=\"800\" height=\"450\" class=\"size-full wp-image-24080\">\u003c/a>\u003cfigcaption class=\"wp-caption-text\">California’s earthquake faults seem to have a close relationship with serpentinite, a slippery stone that lubricates their motions. (Andrew Alden photo)\u003c/figcaption>\u003c/figure>\n\u003cp>On a map of the whole state, the great earthquake faults of California look like a pretty simple set of lines that join and divide in a loose tangle: the San Andreas Fault Zone. But what exactly happens where a fault splits in two? If you cut the map along those lines into wedges and slivers of the Earth’s crust, then try to move them past each other, you can’t make them fit exactly right. How does the Earth do it, and what does that mean for earthquake ruptures in these areas?\u003c/p>\n\u003cfigure id=\"attachment_24081\" class=\"wp-caption aligncenter\" style=\"max-width: 625px\">\u003ca href=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/science/wp-content/uploads/sites/35/2014/11/CAfaults-simple.png\">\u003cimg loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" src=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/science/wp-content/uploads/sites/35/2014/11/CAfaults-simple.png\" alt=\"State fault maps\" width=\"625\" height=\"362\" class=\"size-full wp-image-24081\">\u003c/a>\u003cfigcaption class=\"wp-caption-text\">Extremely simplified maps of our major faults. The places where the San Andreas, Hayward and Calaveras faults meet and join (or split, if you will) are a keen focus of earthquake research. (USGS)\u003c/figcaption>\u003c/figure>\n\u003cp>Geologists have spent the last century mapping the state’s faults and measuring the tectonic ground motions that put stress on them. During that century, they’ve also monitored earthquakes of all sizes (most of them too small to feel) to see precisely where the action is happening on those faults. Only in the last couple of decades have they begun to look at faults in three dimensions. It’s a brain-busting exercise in 3D visualization, using several techniques to provide clues. \u003ca href=\"http://pubs.usgs.gov/sim/3045/\">Our own Hayward fault was an early subject.\u003c/a> A new paper in the journal \u003ci>Tectonics\u003c/i> (\u003ca href=\"http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1002/2014TC003561/abstract\">open access\u003c/a>) has begun to lay bare the intricate buried structure south of Hollister where two major faults come together, the San Andreas and Calaveras faults.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>The work of peeking downward into the crust is slow and labor-intensive, but it’s our only way to check whether our maps are misleading us. It starts by tracing surface rocks downward into the ground, using gravity data and magnetic data to match patterns deep in the crust to confirm that rock units of the right density and magnetic characteristics exist where they’re expected. At the same time, the locations of thousands of tiny earthquakes show where faults are in motion today. Each of these forms of data—gravity, magnetics and seismicity—is fuzzy in its own way, making certainty almost impossible. However, it helps that we have precise data for the Earth’s surface—where the rocks and faults lie and how tectonic forces are moving the landscape. \u003c/p>\n\u003cp>In the \u003ci>Tectonics\u003c/i> paper, Janet Watt and four of her colleagues at the U.S. Geological Survey office in Menlo Park assembled their evidence for the Calaveras–San Andreas junction, in the Coast Range mountains around Pinnacles National Park. Here’s what the faults look like on the map, close up. I’m not showing the rocks because it would be too confusing for anyone but a geologist to enjoy.\u003c/p>\n\u003cfigure id=\"attachment_24082\" class=\"wp-caption aligncenter\" style=\"max-width: 600px\">\u003ca href=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/science/wp-content/uploads/sites/35/2014/11/SAF-Calav-joinmap.png\">\u003cimg loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" src=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/science/wp-content/uploads/sites/35/2014/11/SAF-Calav-joinmap.png\" alt=\"Map of San Andreas-Calaveras join\" width=\"600\" height=\"633\" class=\"size-full wp-image-24082\">\u003c/a>\u003cfigcaption class=\"wp-caption-text\">Red lines are active faults; yellow dots are earthquake locations. H marks the town of Hollister. The three lines X-X’, Y-Y’ and Z-Z’ are cross section shown below. From Figure 1 of the Tectonics paper (USGS)\u003c/figcaption>\u003c/figure>\n\u003cp>Putting together all of the data that I described, the authors built a detailed picture—a model, in scientific-speak—of the region. Here are the three cross-sections of that model. They’re what the model looks like if you sliced it apart along the three lines X-X’, Y-Y’ and Z-Z’.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003c/p>\u003c/div>","attributes":{"named":{},"numeric":[]}},{"type":"component","content":"","name":"ad","attributes":{"named":{"label":"fullwidth"},"numeric":["fullwidth"]}},{"type":"contentString","content":"\u003cdiv class=\"post-body\">\u003cp>\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003ca href=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/science/wp-content/uploads/sites/35/2014/11/profileX-X.png\">\u003cimg loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" src=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/science/wp-content/uploads/sites/35/2014/11/profileX-X.png\" alt=\"profileX-X\" width=\"599\" height=\"425\" class=\"aligncenter size-full wp-image-24083\">\u003c/a>\u003cbr>\n\u003ca href=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/science/wp-content/uploads/sites/35/2014/11/profileY-Y.png\">\u003cimg loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" src=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/science/wp-content/uploads/sites/35/2014/11/profileY-Y.png\" alt=\"profileY-Y\" width=\"599\" height=\"425\" class=\"aligncenter size-full wp-image-24084\">\u003c/a>\u003c/p>\n\u003cfigure id=\"attachment_24085\" class=\"wp-caption aligncenter\" style=\"max-width: 600px\">\u003ca href=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/science/wp-content/uploads/sites/35/2014/11/profileZ-Z.png\">\u003cimg loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" src=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/science/wp-content/uploads/sites/35/2014/11/profileZ-Z.png\" alt=\"Cross sections\" width=\"600\" height=\"425\" class=\"size-full wp-image-24085\">\u003c/a>\u003cfigcaption class=\"wp-caption-text\">Cross sections from Figure 6 of the Tectonics paper. Granite of the Gabilan Range on the left (west), mostly older rocks of the Franciscan complex on the right (east). Black dots are earthquake locations, red lines are active faults (dashed if possibly active).\u003c/figcaption>\u003c/figure>\n\u003cp>The model is quite an achievement. The authors singled out two noteworthy features, shown by the yellow dashed lines. These appear to be deeply hidden active faults that connect the San Andreas and Calaveras faults, transmitting motion between them. Over geologic time, these “cross faults” are very temporary things, but right now they’re important links in the chain of energy that causes our earthquakes. Because earthquakes can spread from one major fault to another, these are the things we need to find if we want to learn our earthquake future.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Another thing the authors point out is the key role of the rock serpentinite, which appears in the model as a usual suspect along these newly traced cross faults. Little did our legislators know how important “serpentine” is when they named it America’s first official state rock, back in 1965.\u003c/p>\n\n\u003c/div>\u003c/p>","attributes":{"named":{},"numeric":[]}}],"link":"/science/24079/using-3d-visualization-geologists-explore-the-complex-areas-where-faults-join-and-split","authors":["6228"],"categories":["science_38"],"tags":["science_427","science_591","science_546","science_838"],"featImg":"science_24080","label":"science"},"science_23497":{"type":"posts","id":"science_23497","meta":{"index":"posts_1591205157","site":"science","id":"23497","score":null,"sort":[1415304611000]},"guestAuthors":[],"slug":"yosemites-tuolumne-meadows-a-long-standing-geological-puzzle","title":"Yosemite's Tuolumne Meadows: A Long-standing Geological Puzzle","publishDate":1415304611,"format":"aside","headTitle":"Yosemite’s Tuolumne Meadows: A Long-standing Geological Puzzle | KQED","labelTerm":{"term":3259,"site":"science"},"content":"\u003cfigure id=\"attachment_23500\" class=\"wp-caption aligncenter\" style=\"max-width: 800px\">\u003ca href=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/science/wp-content/uploads/sites/35/2014/11/tuolumnemeadows.jpg\">\u003cimg loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" src=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/science/wp-content/uploads/sites/35/2014/11/tuolumnemeadows.jpg\" alt=\"Tuolumne Meadows\" width=\"800\" height=\"450\" class=\"size-full wp-image-23500\">\u003c/a>\u003cfigcaption class=\"wp-caption-text\">Tuolumne Meadows is an unexpected kind of place. In a new study, geologists suggest that it exists because an accident of geologic history allowed glaciers to carve the exact same kind of rock into both flats and high blocks like Lembert Dome, shown here. (Andrew Alden photo)\u003c/figcaption>\u003c/figure>\n\u003cp>One of many iconic landscapes in Yosemite National Park is a wide-open grassy stretch mixed with high granite outcrops called Tuolumne Meadows. Millions of visitors have stopped there in wonder. Geologists love a good view as much as anyone, but sooner or later they ask themselves the strange but typical question, “How did this landscape happen?” \u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Tuolumne Meadows is a long-standing geological puzzle—a large relatively flat place in the midst of a rugged range. \u003c/p>\n\u003cfigure id=\"attachment_23502\" class=\"wp-caption aligncenter\" style=\"max-width: 550px\">\u003ca href=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/science/wp-content/uploads/sites/35/2014/11/tuolumnemeadowspng.png\">\u003cimg loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" src=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/science/wp-content/uploads/sites/35/2014/11/tuolumnemeadowspng.png\" alt=\"Tuolumne Meadows in Google Maps\" width=\"550\" height=\"325\" class=\"size-full wp-image-23502\">\u003c/a>\u003cfigcaption class=\"wp-caption-text\">Tuolumne Meadows in Google Maps\u003c/figcaption>\u003c/figure>\n\u003cp>Like most of the high Sierra valleys, the Meadows were covered by ice age glaciers until very recently (in geologic time), just 12,000 years ago or so. So in the Sierra, the geologists’ question usually boils down to “How did the glaciers make this landscape?” At Tuolumne Meadows, their question is “How the heck?”\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Tuolumne Meadows is geologically weird because it mixes a wide flat area, typical of weak bedrock, with big humps of clean strong stone, like Lembert Dome, exposed like sculpture in a gallery. But the whole area is in one large body of identical granite, the Cathedral Peak Granodiorite. (Granodiorite has a slightly different blend of minerals from true granite; only geologists notice. Most of the Sierra’s beautiful white “granite” is granodiorite.) The clean crags that Yosemite rock climbers love are cheek by jowl with flat, well-eroded meadows, all in the same rock. How did the glaciers carve the same stuff into such a variety of landforms?\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Geologist Richard Becker and three colleagues have unraveled the puzzle in a new paper for \u003ci>GSA Today\u003c/i> (\u003ca href=\"http://www.geosociety.org/gsatoday/archive/24/11/abstract/i1052-5173-24-11-4.htm\">open access\u003c/a>). They say the key is the cracks in the granite.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>[ad fullwidth]\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Long ago, for nearly a hundred million years, the land we know as the Sierra Nevada was a huge belt of volcanoes, similar to Japan today. Japan gets its volcanism as a result of plate tectonics. The Pacific plate is being pulled westward under Japan where it sinks from its own weight, and as the plate subducts, its material partially melts into water-rich, highly fluid magma that slowly moves upward to erupt in Fujiyama and hundreds of other volcanoes. \u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Deeper down, that same process creates bodies of slow-cooled granite. In California those granite bodies, which once fed magma and fluids to ancient volcanoes above them, have been uncovered by millions of years of erosion. The Cathedral Peak Granodiorite is a former intrusion of magma that solidified about 88.1 million years ago. \u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Soon afterward (85.4 million years ago) another body of granite pushed its way into the area, feeding its own generation of volcanoes as it came. Fluids rising from it through the older granite created peculiar clusters of cracks. Becker and his coauthors have described these in previous papers and given them the name of tabular fracture clusters, or TFCs.\u003c/p>\n\u003cfigure id=\"attachment_23503\" class=\"wp-caption aligncenter\" style=\"max-width: 600px\">\u003ca href=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/science/wp-content/uploads/sites/35/2014/11/tabular-fracture-cluster.jpg\">\u003cimg loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" src=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/science/wp-content/uploads/sites/35/2014/11/tabular-fracture-cluster.jpg\" alt=\"Tabular fracture cluster\" width=\"600\" height=\"465\" class=\"size-full wp-image-23503\">\u003c/a>\u003cfigcaption class=\"wp-caption-text\">Ryan Hollister’s students from Turlock High School walk in the glacially eroded trace of a tabular fracture cluster in the Bummers Flat Granodiorite near Chewing Gum Lake in the Emigrant Wilderness. (\u003ca href=\"http://www.mrhollisterphoto.com/\">Ryan Hollister\u003c/a>)\u003c/figcaption>\u003c/figure>\n\u003cp>TFCs are not like the typical cracks in granite, which are classified by geologists as joints. They’re shattered zones, tightly clustered bundles of cracks, that may be a meter wide.\u003c/p>\n\u003cfigure id=\"attachment_23504\" class=\"wp-caption aligncenter\" style=\"max-width: 600px\">\u003ca href=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/science/wp-content/uploads/sites/35/2014/11/TFC-landscape.jpg\">\u003cimg loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" src=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/science/wp-content/uploads/sites/35/2014/11/TFC-landscape.jpg\" alt=\"TFCs in the landscape\" width=\"600\" height=\"474\" class=\"size-full wp-image-23504\">\u003c/a>\u003cfigcaption class=\"wp-caption-text\">Area of abundant TFCs near Mosquito Lake, Emigrant Wilderness. Cracks in the background are joints. (\u003ca href=\"http://www.mrhollisterphoto.com/about.html\">Ryan Hollister\u003c/a>)\u003c/figcaption>\u003c/figure>\n\u003cp>The ice age glaciers found those fractures easy digging. Where TFCs are scattered, glaciers carved them into deep grooves. Where they’re closely spaced, glaciers could also break the hard rock between them and scrape the land down wholesale. Tuolumne Meadows has two large sets of abundant TFCs, arranged in different directions, that cut the granite into blocks as effectively as a knife slicing up a pan of brownies.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Just to make sure of their findings, Becker’s team examined another part of the Sierra, the Mono Recesses, where the granite is almost identical but where TFCs are rare. \u003c/p>\n\u003cfigure id=\"attachment_23505\" class=\"wp-caption aligncenter\" style=\"max-width: 550px\">\u003ca href=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/science/wp-content/uploads/sites/35/2014/11/monorecessespng.png\">\u003cimg loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" src=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/science/wp-content/uploads/sites/35/2014/11/monorecessespng.png\" alt=\"Mono Recesses in Google Maps\" width=\"550\" height=\"325\" class=\"size-full wp-image-23505\">\u003c/a>\u003cfigcaption class=\"wp-caption-text\">Mono Recesses in Google Maps\u003c/figcaption>\u003c/figure>\n\u003cp>There the glaciers carved a textbook alpine terrain of narrow, U-shaped valleys—another climber’s playground—without wide meadows. \u003c/p>\n\u003cfigure id=\"attachment_23506\" class=\"wp-caption aligncenter\" style=\"max-width: 600px\">\u003ca href=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/science/wp-content/uploads/sites/35/2014/11/2nd-recess-mono-creek.jpg\">\u003cimg loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" src=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/science/wp-content/uploads/sites/35/2014/11/2nd-recess-mono-creek.jpg\" alt=\"2nd Recess of Mono Creek\" width=\"600\" height=\"480\" class=\"size-full wp-image-23506\">\u003c/a>\u003cfigcaption class=\"wp-caption-text\">The Mono Recesses is underlain by the same granite as Tuolumne Meadows, only unfractured, yielding a typical landscape of U-shaped glacial valleys (\u003ca href=\"https://www.flickr.com/photos/mtnexplorer/\">Craig Taylor/\u003c/a>\u003ca href=\"https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-sa/2.0/\">CC-BY-NC-SA\u003c/a>)\u003c/figcaption>\u003c/figure>\n\u003cp>\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>It’s just as grand, but a different kind of beautiful. Deep events of 85 million years ago left tracks at Tuolumne Meadows that the glaciers followed as they carved a geological sculpture garden in the high Yosemite country.\u003c/p>\n\n","blocks":[],"excerpt":"The iconic Tuolumne Meadows, in the high Sierra, is a geological puzzle. A newly published study traces the roots of the meadows to an incident deep in time and deep below the ground.","status":"publish","parent":0,"modified":1704932643,"stats":{"hasAudio":false,"hasVideo":false,"hasChartOrMap":false,"iframeSrcs":[],"hasGoogleForm":false,"hasGallery":false,"hasHearkenModule":false,"hasPolis":false,"paragraphCount":15,"wordCount":810},"headData":{"title":"Yosemite's Tuolumne Meadows: A Long-standing Geological Puzzle | KQED","description":"The iconic Tuolumne Meadows, in the high Sierra, is a geological puzzle. A newly published study traces the roots of the meadows to an incident deep in time and deep below the ground.","ogTitle":"","ogDescription":"","ogImgId":"","twTitle":"","twDescription":"","twImgId":""},"sticky":false,"path":"/science/23497/yosemites-tuolumne-meadows-a-long-standing-geological-puzzle","audioTrackLength":null,"parsedContent":[{"type":"contentString","content":"\u003cdiv class=\"post-body\">\u003cp>\u003cfigure id=\"attachment_23500\" class=\"wp-caption aligncenter\" style=\"max-width: 800px\">\u003ca href=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/science/wp-content/uploads/sites/35/2014/11/tuolumnemeadows.jpg\">\u003cimg loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" src=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/science/wp-content/uploads/sites/35/2014/11/tuolumnemeadows.jpg\" alt=\"Tuolumne Meadows\" width=\"800\" height=\"450\" class=\"size-full wp-image-23500\">\u003c/a>\u003cfigcaption class=\"wp-caption-text\">Tuolumne Meadows is an unexpected kind of place. In a new study, geologists suggest that it exists because an accident of geologic history allowed glaciers to carve the exact same kind of rock into both flats and high blocks like Lembert Dome, shown here. (Andrew Alden photo)\u003c/figcaption>\u003c/figure>\n\u003cp>One of many iconic landscapes in Yosemite National Park is a wide-open grassy stretch mixed with high granite outcrops called Tuolumne Meadows. Millions of visitors have stopped there in wonder. Geologists love a good view as much as anyone, but sooner or later they ask themselves the strange but typical question, “How did this landscape happen?” \u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Tuolumne Meadows is a long-standing geological puzzle—a large relatively flat place in the midst of a rugged range. \u003c/p>\n\u003cfigure id=\"attachment_23502\" class=\"wp-caption aligncenter\" style=\"max-width: 550px\">\u003ca href=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/science/wp-content/uploads/sites/35/2014/11/tuolumnemeadowspng.png\">\u003cimg loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" src=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/science/wp-content/uploads/sites/35/2014/11/tuolumnemeadowspng.png\" alt=\"Tuolumne Meadows in Google Maps\" width=\"550\" height=\"325\" class=\"size-full wp-image-23502\">\u003c/a>\u003cfigcaption class=\"wp-caption-text\">Tuolumne Meadows in Google Maps\u003c/figcaption>\u003c/figure>\n\u003cp>Like most of the high Sierra valleys, the Meadows were covered by ice age glaciers until very recently (in geologic time), just 12,000 years ago or so. So in the Sierra, the geologists’ question usually boils down to “How did the glaciers make this landscape?” At Tuolumne Meadows, their question is “How the heck?”\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Tuolumne Meadows is geologically weird because it mixes a wide flat area, typical of weak bedrock, with big humps of clean strong stone, like Lembert Dome, exposed like sculpture in a gallery. But the whole area is in one large body of identical granite, the Cathedral Peak Granodiorite. (Granodiorite has a slightly different blend of minerals from true granite; only geologists notice. Most of the Sierra’s beautiful white “granite” is granodiorite.) The clean crags that Yosemite rock climbers love are cheek by jowl with flat, well-eroded meadows, all in the same rock. How did the glaciers carve the same stuff into such a variety of landforms?\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Geologist Richard Becker and three colleagues have unraveled the puzzle in a new paper for \u003ci>GSA Today\u003c/i> (\u003ca href=\"http://www.geosociety.org/gsatoday/archive/24/11/abstract/i1052-5173-24-11-4.htm\">open access\u003c/a>). They say the key is the cracks in the granite.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003c/p>\u003c/div>","attributes":{"named":{},"numeric":[]}},{"type":"component","content":"","name":"ad","attributes":{"named":{"label":"fullwidth"},"numeric":["fullwidth"]}},{"type":"contentString","content":"\u003cdiv class=\"post-body\">\u003cp>\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Long ago, for nearly a hundred million years, the land we know as the Sierra Nevada was a huge belt of volcanoes, similar to Japan today. Japan gets its volcanism as a result of plate tectonics. The Pacific plate is being pulled westward under Japan where it sinks from its own weight, and as the plate subducts, its material partially melts into water-rich, highly fluid magma that slowly moves upward to erupt in Fujiyama and hundreds of other volcanoes. \u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Deeper down, that same process creates bodies of slow-cooled granite. In California those granite bodies, which once fed magma and fluids to ancient volcanoes above them, have been uncovered by millions of years of erosion. The Cathedral Peak Granodiorite is a former intrusion of magma that solidified about 88.1 million years ago. \u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Soon afterward (85.4 million years ago) another body of granite pushed its way into the area, feeding its own generation of volcanoes as it came. Fluids rising from it through the older granite created peculiar clusters of cracks. Becker and his coauthors have described these in previous papers and given them the name of tabular fracture clusters, or TFCs.\u003c/p>\n\u003cfigure id=\"attachment_23503\" class=\"wp-caption aligncenter\" style=\"max-width: 600px\">\u003ca href=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/science/wp-content/uploads/sites/35/2014/11/tabular-fracture-cluster.jpg\">\u003cimg loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" src=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/science/wp-content/uploads/sites/35/2014/11/tabular-fracture-cluster.jpg\" alt=\"Tabular fracture cluster\" width=\"600\" height=\"465\" class=\"size-full wp-image-23503\">\u003c/a>\u003cfigcaption class=\"wp-caption-text\">Ryan Hollister’s students from Turlock High School walk in the glacially eroded trace of a tabular fracture cluster in the Bummers Flat Granodiorite near Chewing Gum Lake in the Emigrant Wilderness. (\u003ca href=\"http://www.mrhollisterphoto.com/\">Ryan Hollister\u003c/a>)\u003c/figcaption>\u003c/figure>\n\u003cp>TFCs are not like the typical cracks in granite, which are classified by geologists as joints. They’re shattered zones, tightly clustered bundles of cracks, that may be a meter wide.\u003c/p>\n\u003cfigure id=\"attachment_23504\" class=\"wp-caption aligncenter\" style=\"max-width: 600px\">\u003ca href=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/science/wp-content/uploads/sites/35/2014/11/TFC-landscape.jpg\">\u003cimg loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" src=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/science/wp-content/uploads/sites/35/2014/11/TFC-landscape.jpg\" alt=\"TFCs in the landscape\" width=\"600\" height=\"474\" class=\"size-full wp-image-23504\">\u003c/a>\u003cfigcaption class=\"wp-caption-text\">Area of abundant TFCs near Mosquito Lake, Emigrant Wilderness. Cracks in the background are joints. (\u003ca href=\"http://www.mrhollisterphoto.com/about.html\">Ryan Hollister\u003c/a>)\u003c/figcaption>\u003c/figure>\n\u003cp>The ice age glaciers found those fractures easy digging. Where TFCs are scattered, glaciers carved them into deep grooves. Where they’re closely spaced, glaciers could also break the hard rock between them and scrape the land down wholesale. Tuolumne Meadows has two large sets of abundant TFCs, arranged in different directions, that cut the granite into blocks as effectively as a knife slicing up a pan of brownies.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Just to make sure of their findings, Becker’s team examined another part of the Sierra, the Mono Recesses, where the granite is almost identical but where TFCs are rare. \u003c/p>\n\u003cfigure id=\"attachment_23505\" class=\"wp-caption aligncenter\" style=\"max-width: 550px\">\u003ca href=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/science/wp-content/uploads/sites/35/2014/11/monorecessespng.png\">\u003cimg loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" src=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/science/wp-content/uploads/sites/35/2014/11/monorecessespng.png\" alt=\"Mono Recesses in Google Maps\" width=\"550\" height=\"325\" class=\"size-full wp-image-23505\">\u003c/a>\u003cfigcaption class=\"wp-caption-text\">Mono Recesses in Google Maps\u003c/figcaption>\u003c/figure>\n\u003cp>There the glaciers carved a textbook alpine terrain of narrow, U-shaped valleys—another climber’s playground—without wide meadows. \u003c/p>\n\u003cfigure id=\"attachment_23506\" class=\"wp-caption aligncenter\" style=\"max-width: 600px\">\u003ca href=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/science/wp-content/uploads/sites/35/2014/11/2nd-recess-mono-creek.jpg\">\u003cimg loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" src=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/science/wp-content/uploads/sites/35/2014/11/2nd-recess-mono-creek.jpg\" alt=\"2nd Recess of Mono Creek\" width=\"600\" height=\"480\" class=\"size-full wp-image-23506\">\u003c/a>\u003cfigcaption class=\"wp-caption-text\">The Mono Recesses is underlain by the same granite as Tuolumne Meadows, only unfractured, yielding a typical landscape of U-shaped glacial valleys (\u003ca href=\"https://www.flickr.com/photos/mtnexplorer/\">Craig Taylor/\u003c/a>\u003ca href=\"https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-sa/2.0/\">CC-BY-NC-SA\u003c/a>)\u003c/figcaption>\u003c/figure>\n\u003cp>\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>It’s just as grand, but a different kind of beautiful. Deep events of 85 million years ago left tracks at Tuolumne Meadows that the glaciers followed as they carved a geological sculpture garden in the high Yosemite country.\u003c/p>\n\n\u003c/div>\u003c/p>","attributes":{"named":{},"numeric":[]}}],"link":"/science/23497/yosemites-tuolumne-meadows-a-long-standing-geological-puzzle","authors":["6228"],"series":["science_3259"],"categories":["science_38"],"tags":["science_591","science_109","science_944","science_159"],"featImg":"science_23500","label":"science_3259"},"science_18307":{"type":"posts","id":"science_18307","meta":{"index":"posts_1591205157","site":"science","id":"18307","score":null,"sort":[1402602079000]},"guestAuthors":[],"slug":"new-evidence-of-earths-deep-water-cycle-reveals-a-virtual-buried-ocean","title":"New Evidence of Earth’s Deep Water Cycle Reveals A Virtual Buried Ocean","publishDate":1402602079,"format":"aside","headTitle":"New Evidence of Earth’s Deep Water Cycle Reveals A Virtual Buried Ocean | KQED","labelTerm":{"site":"science"},"content":"\u003cfigure id=\"attachment_18308\" class=\"wp-caption aligncenter\" style=\"max-width: 640px\">\u003ca href=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/science/wp-content/uploads/sites/35/2014/06/earthshells.png\">\u003cimg loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" src=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/science/wp-content/uploads/sites/35/2014/06/earthshells.png\" alt=\"Layers of the Earth\" width=\"640\" height=\"360\" class=\"size-full wp-image-18308\">\u003c/a>\u003cfigcaption class=\"wp-caption-text\">New evidence from high-pressure experiments and earthquake waves suggests the presence of water-rich melt at the base of the upper mantle, far deeper than previous estimates. (After Wikimedia/\u003ca href=\"http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/3.0/\">CC BY-SA 3.0\u003c/a>)\u003c/figcaption>\u003c/figure>\n\u003cp>Water is part of Earth’s very definition as a planet. Clouds of water fill its atmosphere, oceans cover most of its surface, and groundwater is found everywhere underground. For the last century, geologists have been tracing the influence of water deeper and deeper into Earth’s interior. During the last year, whole oceans worth of water have been found in the mantle, hundreds of kilometers below the crust. And a paper in today’s issue of \u003ca href=\"http://www.sciencemag.org/content/344/6189/1265\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\">Science\u003c/a> traces water’s influence all the way down to an important boundary inside the Earth, the top of the lower mantle.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>The study, by a team of five scientists led by Brandon Schmandt (University of New Mexico) and Steven Jacobsen (Northwestern University), combined high-pressure experiments on minerals with high-precision seismic observations to argue that large amounts of melted rock—magma—exist far deeper than the magma feeding volcanoes on the Earth’s surface. Their research involved the transition zone, the bottom part of the upper mantle between 410 and 660 kilometers deep.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>A paper earlier this year in Nature reported that ringwoodite, the most common mineral in the transition zone, can contain more than 1 percent of water inside its crystal structure, a significant amount. Schmandt and Jacobsen’s team did an elegant experiment to show what would happen to ringwoodite as it hits the bottom of its comfort zone at 660 kilometers depth. At that depth ringwoodite breaks down and forms two new minerals, neither of which can hold as much water. They laser-heated tiny spots in a water-bearing ringwoodite sample, forcing it to form the two higher-pressure phases, and showed that the water expelled during this process formed a thin layer of melt around the edge.\u003c/p>\n\u003cfigure id=\"attachment_18309\" class=\"wp-caption aligncenter\" style=\"max-width: 482px\">\u003ca href=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/science/wp-content/uploads/sites/35/2014/06/ringwoodite-fig.jpg\">\u003cimg loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" src=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/science/wp-content/uploads/sites/35/2014/06/ringwoodite-fig.jpg\" alt=\"ringwoodite\" width=\"482\" height=\"235\" class=\"size-full wp-image-18309\">\u003c/a>\u003cfigcaption class=\"wp-caption-text\">Left, blue ringwoodite with three laser-heated spots (red) that were transformed into the lower-mantle phases magnesiowustite and brigmanite (silicate perovskite). Right, electron micrograph of the edge of dot 2 shows perovskite crystals and a rim of melt. From Figure 1 of Schmandt et al., “\u003ca href=\"http://www.sciencemag.org/lookup/doi/10.1126/science.1253358\">Dehydration melting at the top of the lower mantle\u003c/a>,” \u003ci>Science\u003c/i> vol. 344, p. 1265-1268.\u003c/figcaption>\u003c/figure>\n\u003cp>Next, they analyzed the high-quality data from the great USArray seismic experiment, a 10-year project that has been mapping the mantle beneath the United States with a set of hundreds of seismometers, moving from area to area like a doctor using a stethoscope. The behavior of earthquake waves down at the base of the transition zone matches what would be expected from large areas of melt. More precisely, these would be large areas in which a small fraction of the rock, consisting of the hair-thin spaces between mineral grains, is molten. Just as dry sand behaves very differently when it has a small amount of water between its grains, so too does the rock of the mantle. Wet sand is stiffer than dry sand, but wet mantle is the opposite—softer and more pliable. The slippery layer in the uppermost mantle that allows the tectonic plates to move about—the asthenosphere—that’s wet mantle.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>The picture Schmandt and Jacobsen’s team present in their paper is one in which the stirrings in the mantle, caused by plate tectonics, move large volumes of rock into and through the transition zone. As these move down through the 660-km level, most of the water they contain is released and left behind. A similar reaction is already known to take place as rock moves upward through the upper edge of the transition zone, leaving water behind. This new paper puts the lower boundary into the story too, suggesting that the transition zone tends to retain water over geologic time. It may even function like the asthenosphere higher up in the mantle.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>[ad fullwidth]\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>The only thing I need to add to this is a disclaimer about water. The lava in volcanoes contains real water, H\u003csub>2\u003c/sub>O, dissolved in it that comes out in the form of steam. Magma in the uppermost mantle, the stuff that directly feeds volcanoes, has real water in it. But water lower in the mantle, trapped inside ringwoodite, is not water as we know it. It is hydroxyl, or OH as opposed to H\u003csub>2\u003c/sub>O. Think of it as dehydrated water. The result, in terms of creating melt and enlivening activity in otherwise solid rock, is the same. The exact connections between these two deep water cycles are still to be discovered.\u003c/p>\n\n","blocks":[],"excerpt":"New evidence from high-pressure experiments and earthquake waves suggests the presence of water-rich melt at the base of the upper mantle, far deeper than previous estimates.","status":"publish","parent":0,"modified":1704933504,"stats":{"hasAudio":false,"hasVideo":false,"hasChartOrMap":false,"iframeSrcs":[],"hasGoogleForm":false,"hasGallery":false,"hasHearkenModule":false,"hasPolis":false,"paragraphCount":8,"wordCount":786},"headData":{"title":"New Evidence of Earth’s Deep Water Cycle Reveals A Virtual Buried Ocean | KQED","description":"New evidence from high-pressure experiments and earthquake waves suggests the presence of water-rich melt at the base of the upper mantle, far deeper than previous estimates.","ogTitle":"","ogDescription":"","ogImgId":"","twTitle":"","twDescription":"","twImgId":""},"sticky":false,"path":"/science/18307/new-evidence-of-earths-deep-water-cycle-reveals-a-virtual-buried-ocean","audioTrackLength":null,"parsedContent":[{"type":"contentString","content":"\u003cdiv class=\"post-body\">\u003cp>\u003cfigure id=\"attachment_18308\" class=\"wp-caption aligncenter\" style=\"max-width: 640px\">\u003ca href=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/science/wp-content/uploads/sites/35/2014/06/earthshells.png\">\u003cimg loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" src=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/science/wp-content/uploads/sites/35/2014/06/earthshells.png\" alt=\"Layers of the Earth\" width=\"640\" height=\"360\" class=\"size-full wp-image-18308\">\u003c/a>\u003cfigcaption class=\"wp-caption-text\">New evidence from high-pressure experiments and earthquake waves suggests the presence of water-rich melt at the base of the upper mantle, far deeper than previous estimates. (After Wikimedia/\u003ca href=\"http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/3.0/\">CC BY-SA 3.0\u003c/a>)\u003c/figcaption>\u003c/figure>\n\u003cp>Water is part of Earth’s very definition as a planet. Clouds of water fill its atmosphere, oceans cover most of its surface, and groundwater is found everywhere underground. For the last century, geologists have been tracing the influence of water deeper and deeper into Earth’s interior. During the last year, whole oceans worth of water have been found in the mantle, hundreds of kilometers below the crust. And a paper in today’s issue of \u003ca href=\"http://www.sciencemag.org/content/344/6189/1265\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\">Science\u003c/a> traces water’s influence all the way down to an important boundary inside the Earth, the top of the lower mantle.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>The study, by a team of five scientists led by Brandon Schmandt (University of New Mexico) and Steven Jacobsen (Northwestern University), combined high-pressure experiments on minerals with high-precision seismic observations to argue that large amounts of melted rock—magma—exist far deeper than the magma feeding volcanoes on the Earth’s surface. Their research involved the transition zone, the bottom part of the upper mantle between 410 and 660 kilometers deep.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>A paper earlier this year in Nature reported that ringwoodite, the most common mineral in the transition zone, can contain more than 1 percent of water inside its crystal structure, a significant amount. Schmandt and Jacobsen’s team did an elegant experiment to show what would happen to ringwoodite as it hits the bottom of its comfort zone at 660 kilometers depth. At that depth ringwoodite breaks down and forms two new minerals, neither of which can hold as much water. They laser-heated tiny spots in a water-bearing ringwoodite sample, forcing it to form the two higher-pressure phases, and showed that the water expelled during this process formed a thin layer of melt around the edge.\u003c/p>\n\u003cfigure id=\"attachment_18309\" class=\"wp-caption aligncenter\" style=\"max-width: 482px\">\u003ca href=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/science/wp-content/uploads/sites/35/2014/06/ringwoodite-fig.jpg\">\u003cimg loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" src=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/science/wp-content/uploads/sites/35/2014/06/ringwoodite-fig.jpg\" alt=\"ringwoodite\" width=\"482\" height=\"235\" class=\"size-full wp-image-18309\">\u003c/a>\u003cfigcaption class=\"wp-caption-text\">Left, blue ringwoodite with three laser-heated spots (red) that were transformed into the lower-mantle phases magnesiowustite and brigmanite (silicate perovskite). Right, electron micrograph of the edge of dot 2 shows perovskite crystals and a rim of melt. From Figure 1 of Schmandt et al., “\u003ca href=\"http://www.sciencemag.org/lookup/doi/10.1126/science.1253358\">Dehydration melting at the top of the lower mantle\u003c/a>,” \u003ci>Science\u003c/i> vol. 344, p. 1265-1268.\u003c/figcaption>\u003c/figure>\n\u003cp>Next, they analyzed the high-quality data from the great USArray seismic experiment, a 10-year project that has been mapping the mantle beneath the United States with a set of hundreds of seismometers, moving from area to area like a doctor using a stethoscope. The behavior of earthquake waves down at the base of the transition zone matches what would be expected from large areas of melt. More precisely, these would be large areas in which a small fraction of the rock, consisting of the hair-thin spaces between mineral grains, is molten. Just as dry sand behaves very differently when it has a small amount of water between its grains, so too does the rock of the mantle. Wet sand is stiffer than dry sand, but wet mantle is the opposite—softer and more pliable. The slippery layer in the uppermost mantle that allows the tectonic plates to move about—the asthenosphere—that’s wet mantle.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>The picture Schmandt and Jacobsen’s team present in their paper is one in which the stirrings in the mantle, caused by plate tectonics, move large volumes of rock into and through the transition zone. As these move down through the 660-km level, most of the water they contain is released and left behind. A similar reaction is already known to take place as rock moves upward through the upper edge of the transition zone, leaving water behind. This new paper puts the lower boundary into the story too, suggesting that the transition zone tends to retain water over geologic time. It may even function like the asthenosphere higher up in the mantle.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003c/p>\u003c/div>","attributes":{"named":{},"numeric":[]}},{"type":"component","content":"","name":"ad","attributes":{"named":{"label":"fullwidth"},"numeric":["fullwidth"]}},{"type":"contentString","content":"\u003cdiv class=\"post-body\">\u003cp>\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>The only thing I need to add to this is a disclaimer about water. The lava in volcanoes contains real water, H\u003csub>2\u003c/sub>O, dissolved in it that comes out in the form of steam. Magma in the uppermost mantle, the stuff that directly feeds volcanoes, has real water in it. But water lower in the mantle, trapped inside ringwoodite, is not water as we know it. It is hydroxyl, or OH as opposed to H\u003csub>2\u003c/sub>O. Think of it as dehydrated water. The result, in terms of creating melt and enlivening activity in otherwise solid rock, is the same. The exact connections between these two deep water cycles are still to be discovered.\u003c/p>\n\n\u003c/div>\u003c/p>","attributes":{"named":{},"numeric":[]}}],"link":"/science/18307/new-evidence-of-earths-deep-water-cycle-reveals-a-virtual-buried-ocean","authors":["6228"],"categories":["science_38"],"tags":["science_591"],"featImg":"science_18308","label":"science"},"science_15884":{"type":"posts","id":"science_15884","meta":{"index":"posts_1591205157","site":"science","id":"15884","score":null,"sort":[1395947908000]},"guestAuthors":[],"slug":"50-years-ago-alaskan-earthquake-was-key-event-for-earth-science","title":"50 Years Ago, Alaskan Earthquake Was Key Event for Earth Science","publishDate":1395947908,"format":"aside","headTitle":"50 Years Ago, Alaskan Earthquake Was Key Event for Earth Science | KQED","labelTerm":{"site":"science"},"content":"\u003cfigure id=\"attachment_15885\" class=\"wp-caption aligncenter\" style=\"max-width: 800px\">\u003ca href=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/science/wp-content/uploads/sites/35/2014/03/AKEQmap.png\" rel=\"attachment wp-att-15885\">\u003cimg loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" src=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/science/wp-content/uploads/sites/35/2014/03/AKEQmap.png\" alt=\"Alaska earthquake map\" width=\"800\" height=\"656\" class=\"size-full wp-image-15885\">\u003c/a>\u003cfigcaption class=\"wp-caption-text\">Figure 1 of Plafker’s \u003ci>Science\u003c/i> paper, “Tectonic Deformation Associated with the 1964 Alaska Earthquake,” vol. 148, pp. 1675-1687. The quake is officially given a date of March 28 because it was 3:36 a.m. the next day in Universal Time. Click the image to see it full size. Paper reproduced by the \u003ca href=\"http://www.iris.edu/seismo/quakes/1964alaska/\">IRIS SeismoArchives\u003c/a>\u003c/figcaption>\u003c/figure>\n\u003cp>Among many geologists of the boomer generation, the Alaska earthquake of March 27, 1964 is a touchstone of our formative years. Black-and-white images of ruin and upheaval from the then-new state of Alaska burst into our consciousness. News reached us of deadly “tidal waves” washing down the West Coast. But beyond rocking us kids toward geological careers, that earthquake was a key event in the 1960s revolution in earth science.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>The quake, a magnitude 9.2, was the largest ever recorded in U.S. history. It lasted more than four minutes. The earthquake and the ensuing tsunami killed an estimated 131 people.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Geologist George Plafker of the U.S. Geological Survey was in Seattle the afternoon of the quake, attending a regional meeting of the Geological Society of America. He didn’t feel anything, but some colleagues had been up in Seattle’s Space Needle and felt the slow rocking typical of great earthquakes at great distances. His agency sent him to the scene immediately, along with fellow USGS geologists Art Grantz and the late Reuben Kachadoorian, and on Easter Sunday they set to work.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>These three guys were picked because they knew the territory, not because they were earthquake specialists. The Alaskan Branch of the USGS was headquartered in Menlo Park with the rest of the western regional branch. Being in Seattle gave Plafker a day’s lead time in getting there. But the three scientists were what we would call old-school types, skilled in fieldwork and observation and thinking on their feet. They spent a week in Alaska, riding with emergency responders all over the enormous area of damage, then came home and quickly issued \u003ca href=\"http://pubs.er.usgs.gov/publication/cir491\">USGS Circular 491\u003c/a> while planning a summer field season of intensive work.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Circular 491 includes lots of photographs of damage, preliminary maps and eyewitness accounts. In the town of Homer, “Mr. Glen Sewell heard and saw a fracture, 12 to 18 inches wide, coming toward him from the southeast. The fracture passed between his legs, through a building, and continued on into Kachemak Bay.” Huge waves threw seafloor boulders 100 feet high onto the shore. The sea itself was damaged, as “vast numbers of red snappers, which normally inhabit waters deeper than 400 feet in Prince William Sound, were found floating on the surface.” \u003c/p>\n\u003cp>[ad fullwidth]\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>The most pervasive feature the geologists noted was also the most interesting to science: huge areas of land had been uplifted, and a comparable region had subsided. The signs were easy to recognize, and the summer season was largely spent measuring them. Rising shorelines killed the barnacles and other sea life on the rocks, leaving bands of dead white shells. Sinking shorelines killed the forests by drowning them in seawater. These contours of death were plain as day by summer.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Plafker published a long paper in the journal \u003ci>Science\u003c/i> on June 25, 1965, laying out his findings. Reading it today, the paper today has an antique feel, like something that could have been written a century earlier. He presented maps showing areas of tectonic (large-scale) uplift and subsidence larger than anyone had documented before.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>His paper showed unequivocally that the earthquake was not the kind that theoretical geologists were used to: not the vertical motions of “normal faults” or the sideways slippage of “strike-slip faults” like the well-known San Andreas fault. Instead, the quake had ruptured a large, nearly horizontal fault that extended from the surface of the seafloor in the Aleutian Trench downward beneath the coast of Alaska. \u003c/p>\n\u003cfigure id=\"attachment_15886\" class=\"wp-caption aligncenter\" style=\"max-width: 640px\">\u003ca href=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/science/wp-content/uploads/sites/35/2014/03/AKEQprofile.png\" rel=\"attachment wp-att-15886\">\u003cimg loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" src=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/science/wp-content/uploads/sites/35/2014/03/AKEQprofile.png\" alt=\"Fault profile\" width=\"640\" height=\"360\" class=\"size-full wp-image-15886\">\u003c/a>\u003cfigcaption class=\"wp-caption-text\">Plafker’s diagram of tectonic uplift across the area of the Good Friday earthquake. Portion of figure 6 of the 1965 \u003ci>Science\u003c/i> paper\u003c/figcaption>\u003c/figure>\n\u003cp>Today we recognize this as a subduction-related megathrust, due to motion of an underlying oceanic plate against an overlying continental plate. In 1965, we had no name for such a thing. He recognized the nature of the localized thrust faulting he had mapped on Montague Island, a place where conventional thinking predicted the opposite. Today we call it splay faulting.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Crucially, Plafker recognized that this kind of motion had been documented in previous Alaskan quakes, and that the rocks of coastal Alaska were themselves deformed in just the way to be expected after millions of years of earthquakes of this type. The facts Plafker brought out in this paper informed the debate that would boil over in the scientific ferment that produced plate tectonics in the next three years.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Plafker was a modest scientist, as he is today at age 85, and he ended his paper with a section clearly labeled “Speculation on Origin of the Earthquake.” But he was confident enough in his conclusions that he swatted down a competing explanation published in \u003ci>Science\u003c/i> earlier that year by the prestigious seismologists Frank Press and David Jackson, calling it “an elegant analysis of the displacement by application of dislocation theory.” The barnacles on the rocks had told him something no theory could contradict.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003ca href=\"http://alaska.usgs.gov/announcements/news/1964Earthquake/\">See the USGS special page on the Alaska earthquake\u003c/a>\u003c/p>\n\n","blocks":[],"excerpt":"50 years ago today, the Good Friday earthquake in Alaska sent shockwaves through earth science itself.","status":"publish","parent":0,"modified":1704933930,"stats":{"hasAudio":false,"hasVideo":false,"hasChartOrMap":false,"iframeSrcs":[],"hasGoogleForm":false,"hasGallery":false,"hasHearkenModule":false,"hasPolis":false,"paragraphCount":14,"wordCount":913},"headData":{"title":"50 Years Ago, Alaskan Earthquake Was Key Event for Earth Science | KQED","description":"50 years ago today, the Good Friday earthquake in Alaska sent shockwaves through earth science itself.","ogTitle":"","ogDescription":"","ogImgId":"","twTitle":"","twDescription":"","twImgId":""},"sticky":false,"path":"/science/15884/50-years-ago-alaskan-earthquake-was-key-event-for-earth-science","audioTrackLength":null,"parsedContent":[{"type":"contentString","content":"\u003cdiv class=\"post-body\">\u003cp>\u003cfigure id=\"attachment_15885\" class=\"wp-caption aligncenter\" style=\"max-width: 800px\">\u003ca href=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/science/wp-content/uploads/sites/35/2014/03/AKEQmap.png\" rel=\"attachment wp-att-15885\">\u003cimg loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" src=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/science/wp-content/uploads/sites/35/2014/03/AKEQmap.png\" alt=\"Alaska earthquake map\" width=\"800\" height=\"656\" class=\"size-full wp-image-15885\">\u003c/a>\u003cfigcaption class=\"wp-caption-text\">Figure 1 of Plafker’s \u003ci>Science\u003c/i> paper, “Tectonic Deformation Associated with the 1964 Alaska Earthquake,” vol. 148, pp. 1675-1687. The quake is officially given a date of March 28 because it was 3:36 a.m. the next day in Universal Time. Click the image to see it full size. Paper reproduced by the \u003ca href=\"http://www.iris.edu/seismo/quakes/1964alaska/\">IRIS SeismoArchives\u003c/a>\u003c/figcaption>\u003c/figure>\n\u003cp>Among many geologists of the boomer generation, the Alaska earthquake of March 27, 1964 is a touchstone of our formative years. Black-and-white images of ruin and upheaval from the then-new state of Alaska burst into our consciousness. News reached us of deadly “tidal waves” washing down the West Coast. But beyond rocking us kids toward geological careers, that earthquake was a key event in the 1960s revolution in earth science.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>The quake, a magnitude 9.2, was the largest ever recorded in U.S. history. It lasted more than four minutes. The earthquake and the ensuing tsunami killed an estimated 131 people.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Geologist George Plafker of the U.S. Geological Survey was in Seattle the afternoon of the quake, attending a regional meeting of the Geological Society of America. He didn’t feel anything, but some colleagues had been up in Seattle’s Space Needle and felt the slow rocking typical of great earthquakes at great distances. His agency sent him to the scene immediately, along with fellow USGS geologists Art Grantz and the late Reuben Kachadoorian, and on Easter Sunday they set to work.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>These three guys were picked because they knew the territory, not because they were earthquake specialists. The Alaskan Branch of the USGS was headquartered in Menlo Park with the rest of the western regional branch. Being in Seattle gave Plafker a day’s lead time in getting there. But the three scientists were what we would call old-school types, skilled in fieldwork and observation and thinking on their feet. They spent a week in Alaska, riding with emergency responders all over the enormous area of damage, then came home and quickly issued \u003ca href=\"http://pubs.er.usgs.gov/publication/cir491\">USGS Circular 491\u003c/a> while planning a summer field season of intensive work.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Circular 491 includes lots of photographs of damage, preliminary maps and eyewitness accounts. In the town of Homer, “Mr. Glen Sewell heard and saw a fracture, 12 to 18 inches wide, coming toward him from the southeast. The fracture passed between his legs, through a building, and continued on into Kachemak Bay.” Huge waves threw seafloor boulders 100 feet high onto the shore. The sea itself was damaged, as “vast numbers of red snappers, which normally inhabit waters deeper than 400 feet in Prince William Sound, were found floating on the surface.” \u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003c/p>\u003c/div>","attributes":{"named":{},"numeric":[]}},{"type":"component","content":"","name":"ad","attributes":{"named":{"label":"fullwidth"},"numeric":["fullwidth"]}},{"type":"contentString","content":"\u003cdiv class=\"post-body\">\u003cp>\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>The most pervasive feature the geologists noted was also the most interesting to science: huge areas of land had been uplifted, and a comparable region had subsided. The signs were easy to recognize, and the summer season was largely spent measuring them. Rising shorelines killed the barnacles and other sea life on the rocks, leaving bands of dead white shells. Sinking shorelines killed the forests by drowning them in seawater. These contours of death were plain as day by summer.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Plafker published a long paper in the journal \u003ci>Science\u003c/i> on June 25, 1965, laying out his findings. Reading it today, the paper today has an antique feel, like something that could have been written a century earlier. He presented maps showing areas of tectonic (large-scale) uplift and subsidence larger than anyone had documented before.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>His paper showed unequivocally that the earthquake was not the kind that theoretical geologists were used to: not the vertical motions of “normal faults” or the sideways slippage of “strike-slip faults” like the well-known San Andreas fault. Instead, the quake had ruptured a large, nearly horizontal fault that extended from the surface of the seafloor in the Aleutian Trench downward beneath the coast of Alaska. \u003c/p>\n\u003cfigure id=\"attachment_15886\" class=\"wp-caption aligncenter\" style=\"max-width: 640px\">\u003ca href=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/science/wp-content/uploads/sites/35/2014/03/AKEQprofile.png\" rel=\"attachment wp-att-15886\">\u003cimg loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" src=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/science/wp-content/uploads/sites/35/2014/03/AKEQprofile.png\" alt=\"Fault profile\" width=\"640\" height=\"360\" class=\"size-full wp-image-15886\">\u003c/a>\u003cfigcaption class=\"wp-caption-text\">Plafker’s diagram of tectonic uplift across the area of the Good Friday earthquake. Portion of figure 6 of the 1965 \u003ci>Science\u003c/i> paper\u003c/figcaption>\u003c/figure>\n\u003cp>Today we recognize this as a subduction-related megathrust, due to motion of an underlying oceanic plate against an overlying continental plate. In 1965, we had no name for such a thing. He recognized the nature of the localized thrust faulting he had mapped on Montague Island, a place where conventional thinking predicted the opposite. Today we call it splay faulting.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Crucially, Plafker recognized that this kind of motion had been documented in previous Alaskan quakes, and that the rocks of coastal Alaska were themselves deformed in just the way to be expected after millions of years of earthquakes of this type. The facts Plafker brought out in this paper informed the debate that would boil over in the scientific ferment that produced plate tectonics in the next three years.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Plafker was a modest scientist, as he is today at age 85, and he ended his paper with a section clearly labeled “Speculation on Origin of the Earthquake.” But he was confident enough in his conclusions that he swatted down a competing explanation published in \u003ci>Science\u003c/i> earlier that year by the prestigious seismologists Frank Press and David Jackson, calling it “an elegant analysis of the displacement by application of dislocation theory.” The barnacles on the rocks had told him something no theory could contradict.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003ca href=\"http://alaska.usgs.gov/announcements/news/1964Earthquake/\">See the USGS special page on the Alaska earthquake\u003c/a>\u003c/p>\n\n\u003c/div>\u003c/p>","attributes":{"named":{},"numeric":[]}}],"link":"/science/15884/50-years-ago-alaskan-earthquake-was-key-event-for-earth-science","authors":["6228"],"categories":["science_38"],"tags":["science_427","science_591","science_838"],"featImg":"science_15886","label":"science"},"science_13500":{"type":"posts","id":"science_13500","meta":{"index":"posts_1591205157","site":"science","id":"13500","score":null,"sort":[1390513849000]},"guestAuthors":[],"slug":"the-next-new-madrid-earthquake-busy-being-born-not-busy-dying","title":"The Next New Madrid Earthquake: Busy Being Born, Not Busy Dying","publishDate":1390513849,"format":"aside","headTitle":"The Next New Madrid Earthquake: Busy Being Born, Not Busy Dying | KQED","labelTerm":{"site":"science"},"content":"\u003cfigure id=\"attachment_13501\" class=\"wp-caption aligncenter\" style=\"max-width: 640px\">\u003ca href=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/science/wp-content/uploads/sites/35/2014/01/newmadridtree.jpg\" rel=\"attachment wp-att-13501\">\u003cimg loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" class=\"size-full wp-image-13501\" src=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/science/wp-content/uploads/sites/35/2014/01/newmadridtree.jpg\" alt=\"1811-12 New Madrid earthquake\" width=\"640\" height=\"360\">\u003c/a>\u003cfigcaption class=\"wp-caption-text\">A tree buried by 5 feet of sediment in the 1811-12 earthquakes grew new roots before Mississippi River floods exposed it again a century later. USGS photo from Bulletin 494, 1912.\u003c/figcaption>\u003c/figure>\n\u003cp>A new study looks at the Midwest site of one of America’s greatest earthquakes and argues that its seismic activity is not fading away, but steady on a course toward large future quakes.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>In the winter of 1811-12, a cluster of four fearsome earthquakes in the central Mississippi River valley literally rocked the nation. Shaking was felt as far away as the Atlantic coast. A large area was thoroughly disrupted around the common borders of Missouri, Arkansas, Tennessee, Kentucky and Illinois. Riverbanks collapsed, farm fields erupted in mud and sand, large areas of land turned to jelly, and part of northwestern Tennessee sank and filled with water to form Reelfoot Lake. Today scientists know these earthquakes as the New Madrid sequence, named after the small Missouri town (“New MAD-rid”) near their epicenter.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>The land was largely wilderness at the time. Not so today. A repeat of the New Madrid quakes would be a calamity on a par with Hurricane Katrina or the 1906 San Francisco earthquake. The larger cities affected would include Little Rock, Memphis, St. Louis and Evansville. So \u003ca href=\"http://www.sciencemag.org/lookup/doi/10.1126/science.1248215\">the study in today’s issue of \u003cem>Science\u003c/em>\u003c/a> is part of a genteel scientific argument with expensive consequences. How much should these places spend on strengthening buildings? How should their building codes and long-term planning reflect seismic risks?\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>The answer depends partly on where the region sits in the earthquake cycle. Some researchers have concluded that the 1811 quakes are long finished, including their aftershocks, and that the small quakes we detect today are part of the steady buildup of stress between large ones. \u003ca href=\"http://geology.about.com/b/2009/11/04/how-long-do-aftershocks-last.htm\">Others have argued\u003c/a> that in places like this, which are far from the active edges of any tectonic plate, aftershocks last many times longer than they do in, say, California. Is the next New Madrid quake “busy being born,” as Bob Dylan might have put it, or is the 1811 quake still “busy dying”? The “dying” model suggests that earthquakes will grow fewer and smaller until seismicity reaches some background level as time goes by. The other model suggests that we’re already at background level, and seismicity will not fade away.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003ca href=\"http://www.sciencemag.org/lookup/doi/10.1126/science.1248215\">The \u003cem>Science\u003c/em> paper\u003c/a>, by government seismologists Morgan Page and Susan Hough, compares the expected pattern of seismic events to the earthquake record, such as it is. The question they asked is whether the record fits an aftershock pattern. They conclude that it definitely does not.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>[ad fullwidth]\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>The record is not ideal for science. The New Madrid quakes occurred with few witnesses, none of them trained scientists. Seismometers were not available for another hundred years. But we do have some firm information gathered from historical sources like newspapers and letters. Our most certain information, Page and Hough argue, is that the cycle began with a cluster of four big events, that only two earthquakes after 1812 reached magnitude 6, and that today the region gets about three events per decade of magnitude 4 or greater.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Using these three constraints, they ran a standard model, the Epidemic Type Aftershock Sequence, more than 10,000 times with a wide range of inputs. None of the model runs could fit all three constraints. The key fact seems to be the absence of magnitude 6 quakes: runs that met the other two constraints called for an average of 135 of these over the 200 years since 1812! That didn’t happen. “If current seismicity in the New Madrid region is not composed predominantly of aftershocks, there must be continuing strain accrual,” Page and Hough conclude. In support, they cite \u003ca href=\"http://pubs.er.usgs.gov/publication/70041931\">newly published evidence from GPS measurements\u003c/a> that strain is building up deep in the crust in the New Madrid region and suggest that it “will continue to be a source of hazard.”\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003ca href=\"http://earthquake.usgs.gov/earthquakes/states/events/1811-1812.php\">The U.S. Geological Survey has lots more information\u003c/a> about the earthquake hazard there and in the adjoining Wabash Valley seismic zone, which threatens Indianapolis and its neighbors.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Where is all this energy coming from? Again, there are two arguments. One is that the continent is responding to the loss of the great North American ice cap some 12,000 years ago. The other is that stresses from deeper in the mantle, where the subducted Farallon plate is slowly sinking while the North America plate sidles over it, are responsible. I think that both candidates are worthy.\u003c/p>\n\n","blocks":[],"excerpt":"For long-term earthquake planning in the Mississippi Valley region, we need to know whether earthquakes are fading away, as some suggest, or not. A new study argues that we're in a \"steady as she goes\" phase.","status":"publish","parent":0,"modified":1704934335,"stats":{"hasAudio":false,"hasVideo":false,"hasChartOrMap":false,"iframeSrcs":[],"hasGoogleForm":false,"hasGallery":false,"hasHearkenModule":false,"hasPolis":false,"paragraphCount":11,"wordCount":772},"headData":{"title":"The Next New Madrid Earthquake: Busy Being Born, Not Busy Dying | KQED","description":"For long-term earthquake planning in the Mississippi Valley region, we need to know whether earthquakes are fading away, as some suggest, or not. A new study argues that we're in a "steady as she goes" phase.","ogTitle":"","ogDescription":"","ogImgId":"","twTitle":"","twDescription":"","twImgId":""},"sticky":false,"path":"/science/13500/the-next-new-madrid-earthquake-busy-being-born-not-busy-dying","audioTrackLength":null,"parsedContent":[{"type":"contentString","content":"\u003cdiv class=\"post-body\">\u003cp>\u003cfigure id=\"attachment_13501\" class=\"wp-caption aligncenter\" style=\"max-width: 640px\">\u003ca href=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/science/wp-content/uploads/sites/35/2014/01/newmadridtree.jpg\" rel=\"attachment wp-att-13501\">\u003cimg loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" class=\"size-full wp-image-13501\" src=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/science/wp-content/uploads/sites/35/2014/01/newmadridtree.jpg\" alt=\"1811-12 New Madrid earthquake\" width=\"640\" height=\"360\">\u003c/a>\u003cfigcaption class=\"wp-caption-text\">A tree buried by 5 feet of sediment in the 1811-12 earthquakes grew new roots before Mississippi River floods exposed it again a century later. USGS photo from Bulletin 494, 1912.\u003c/figcaption>\u003c/figure>\n\u003cp>A new study looks at the Midwest site of one of America’s greatest earthquakes and argues that its seismic activity is not fading away, but steady on a course toward large future quakes.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>In the winter of 1811-12, a cluster of four fearsome earthquakes in the central Mississippi River valley literally rocked the nation. Shaking was felt as far away as the Atlantic coast. A large area was thoroughly disrupted around the common borders of Missouri, Arkansas, Tennessee, Kentucky and Illinois. Riverbanks collapsed, farm fields erupted in mud and sand, large areas of land turned to jelly, and part of northwestern Tennessee sank and filled with water to form Reelfoot Lake. Today scientists know these earthquakes as the New Madrid sequence, named after the small Missouri town (“New MAD-rid”) near their epicenter.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>The land was largely wilderness at the time. Not so today. A repeat of the New Madrid quakes would be a calamity on a par with Hurricane Katrina or the 1906 San Francisco earthquake. The larger cities affected would include Little Rock, Memphis, St. Louis and Evansville. So \u003ca href=\"http://www.sciencemag.org/lookup/doi/10.1126/science.1248215\">the study in today’s issue of \u003cem>Science\u003c/em>\u003c/a> is part of a genteel scientific argument with expensive consequences. How much should these places spend on strengthening buildings? How should their building codes and long-term planning reflect seismic risks?\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>The answer depends partly on where the region sits in the earthquake cycle. Some researchers have concluded that the 1811 quakes are long finished, including their aftershocks, and that the small quakes we detect today are part of the steady buildup of stress between large ones. \u003ca href=\"http://geology.about.com/b/2009/11/04/how-long-do-aftershocks-last.htm\">Others have argued\u003c/a> that in places like this, which are far from the active edges of any tectonic plate, aftershocks last many times longer than they do in, say, California. Is the next New Madrid quake “busy being born,” as Bob Dylan might have put it, or is the 1811 quake still “busy dying”? The “dying” model suggests that earthquakes will grow fewer and smaller until seismicity reaches some background level as time goes by. The other model suggests that we’re already at background level, and seismicity will not fade away.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003ca href=\"http://www.sciencemag.org/lookup/doi/10.1126/science.1248215\">The \u003cem>Science\u003c/em> paper\u003c/a>, by government seismologists Morgan Page and Susan Hough, compares the expected pattern of seismic events to the earthquake record, such as it is. The question they asked is whether the record fits an aftershock pattern. They conclude that it definitely does not.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003c/p>\u003c/div>","attributes":{"named":{},"numeric":[]}},{"type":"component","content":"","name":"ad","attributes":{"named":{"label":"fullwidth"},"numeric":["fullwidth"]}},{"type":"contentString","content":"\u003cdiv class=\"post-body\">\u003cp>\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>The record is not ideal for science. The New Madrid quakes occurred with few witnesses, none of them trained scientists. Seismometers were not available for another hundred years. But we do have some firm information gathered from historical sources like newspapers and letters. Our most certain information, Page and Hough argue, is that the cycle began with a cluster of four big events, that only two earthquakes after 1812 reached magnitude 6, and that today the region gets about three events per decade of magnitude 4 or greater.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Using these three constraints, they ran a standard model, the Epidemic Type Aftershock Sequence, more than 10,000 times with a wide range of inputs. None of the model runs could fit all three constraints. The key fact seems to be the absence of magnitude 6 quakes: runs that met the other two constraints called for an average of 135 of these over the 200 years since 1812! That didn’t happen. “If current seismicity in the New Madrid region is not composed predominantly of aftershocks, there must be continuing strain accrual,” Page and Hough conclude. In support, they cite \u003ca href=\"http://pubs.er.usgs.gov/publication/70041931\">newly published evidence from GPS measurements\u003c/a> that strain is building up deep in the crust in the New Madrid region and suggest that it “will continue to be a source of hazard.”\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003ca href=\"http://earthquake.usgs.gov/earthquakes/states/events/1811-1812.php\">The U.S. Geological Survey has lots more information\u003c/a> about the earthquake hazard there and in the adjoining Wabash Valley seismic zone, which threatens Indianapolis and its neighbors.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Where is all this energy coming from? Again, there are two arguments. One is that the continent is responding to the loss of the great North American ice cap some 12,000 years ago. The other is that stresses from deeper in the mantle, where the subducted Farallon plate is slowly sinking while the North America plate sidles over it, are responsible. I think that both candidates are worthy.\u003c/p>\n\n\u003c/div>\u003c/p>","attributes":{"named":{},"numeric":[]}}],"link":"/science/13500/the-next-new-madrid-earthquake-busy-being-born-not-busy-dying","authors":["6228"],"categories":["science_38"],"tags":["science_427","science_218","science_591","science_550"],"featImg":"science_13501","label":"science"},"science_9328":{"type":"posts","id":"science_9328","meta":{"index":"posts_1591205157","site":"science","id":"9328","score":null,"sort":[1380225877000]},"guestAuthors":[],"slug":"pakistans-new-earthquake-island-can-it-happen-here","title":"Pakistan's New Earthquake Island: Can It Happen Here?","publishDate":1380225877,"format":"aside","headTitle":"Pakistan’s New Earthquake Island: Can It Happen Here? | KQED","labelTerm":{"site":"science"},"content":"\u003cp>When Pakistan was struck by a major earthquake earlier this week, one of its side effects seemed to capture the attention of the news services: several hundred miles from the shock, a small island rose above the waves of the Arabian Sea. Could America see the same thing when we get our next big earthquake? Very possibly.\u003c/p>\n\u003cfigure id=\"attachment_9329\" class=\"wp-caption aligncenter\" style=\"max-width: 640px\">\u003ca href=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/science/wp-content/uploads/sites/35/2013/09/Pakisland.jpg\" rel=\"attachment wp-att-9329\">\u003cimg loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" src=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/science/wp-content/uploads/sites/35/2013/09/Pakisland.jpg\" alt=\"Pakistan mud volcano\" width=\"640\" height=\"360\" class=\"size-full wp-image-9329\">\u003c/a>\u003cfigcaption class=\"wp-caption-text\">Pakistan’s newest island, thrust above the sea off the coast of Gwadar. Pakistan Government/AFP\u003c/figcaption>\u003c/figure>\n\u003cp>Details are sparse, but at least two new islands appeared off southern Pakistan in the hours after the distant shaking stopped. The one shown in the photo was about 100 yards long, about half as wide and about 50 feet high. It was peppered with bubbling mudpots emitting enough methane gas to be an explosive hazard.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>The signs are those of \u003ca href=\"http://geology.about.com/od/structureslandforms/ig/Depositional-Landforms/mud_volcano.htm\">mud volcanism\u003c/a>, a kind of cold eruption powered by high-pressure underground fluids. In this case the fluid would be natural gas (methane) and probably some brine along with it. The distant earthquake presumably caused this by disturbing a delicately balanced situation in which the fluids were very close to eruption already. Perhaps the gas had been seeping out in a stable way, and the extra shaking pushed it too far. Perhaps a near-shore landslide set things off. The best guess is that deeply buried beds of methane hydrate “ice” released a large amount of gas after the shaking.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Only an expensive, rapid scientific expedition can allow us to learn the real scenario, and that won’t happen—the sea will wipe the island off the map in a few months. But we can look at the general tectonic setting at the large scale, courtesy of the \u003ca href=\"http://earthquake.usgs.gov/earthquakes/map/\">U.S. Geological Survey’s earthquake viewer\u003c/a>.\u003c/p>\n\u003cfigure id=\"attachment_9330\" class=\"wp-caption aligncenter\" style=\"max-width: 625px\">\u003ca href=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/science/wp-content/uploads/sites/35/2013/09/PakEQmap.png\" rel=\"attachment wp-att-9330\">\u003cimg loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" src=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/science/wp-content/uploads/sites/35/2013/09/PakEQmap.png\" alt=\"Pakistan tectonic map\" width=\"625\" height=\"452\" class=\"size-full wp-image-9330\">\u003c/a>\u003cfigcaption class=\"wp-caption-text\">Heavy red lines are plate boundaries.\u003c/figcaption>\u003c/figure>\n\u003cp>Tuesday’s earthquake and its aftershocks appear as dots in the mountains of Baluchistan. The new island appeared at Gwadar. Tectonically, this area, known as the Makran, is being squeezed and crumpled as Arabia pushes northward into Eurasia. The natural gas in the young rocks of the Makran and the offshore sediments are free to move in this setting—it is as if the Yucatan were pushing the Gulf of Mexico shut against New Orleans, allowing the buried oil and gas (and methane hydrates) of the Gulf to escape.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>[ad fullwidth]\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>There’s no place exactly like that in the United States, where two continents are colliding. However, southern Alaska and the Santa Barbara coast are similar. Let’s look at California.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003ca href=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/science/2013/09/26/pakistans-new-earthquake-island-can-it-happen-here/califtecmap/\" rel=\"attachment wp-att-9331\">\u003cimg loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" src=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/science/wp-content/uploads/sites/35/2013/09/Califtecmap.png\" alt=\"Califtecmap\" width=\"500\" height=\"300\" class=\"aligncenter size-full wp-image-9331\">\u003c/a>\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>The Pacific plate is moving north-northwest against a bend in the San Andreas fault (the heavy red line marking the plate boundary), which is why the Transverse Ranges are rising there. The ocean basins off the Southern California coast are full of oil and gas, and the large islands of the California Continental Borderland are approaching the mainland there. \u003c/p>\n\u003cp>The last magnitude-7 earthquake to happen off Santa Barbara was in 1812. Records are very scant, of course, and short-lived islands may well have appeared at the time. We’ll know for sure when the next big one hits.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>California has many mud volcanoes in the Salton Sea area, where I took this photo.\u003c/p>\n\u003cfigure id=\"attachment_9332\" class=\"wp-caption aligncenter\" style=\"max-width: 600px\">\u003ca href=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/science/wp-content/uploads/sites/35/2013/09/Saltonmudvolcs.jpg\" rel=\"attachment wp-att-9332\">\u003cimg loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" src=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/science/wp-content/uploads/sites/35/2013/09/Saltonmudvolcs.jpg\" alt=\"California mud volcanoes\" width=\"600\" height=\"401\" class=\"size-full wp-image-9332\">\u003c/a>\u003cfigcaption class=\"wp-caption-text\">The Davis-Schrimpf mud volcano field\u003c/figcaption>\u003c/figure>\n\u003cp>\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>These are basically hydrothermal in origin, like the mudpots of Mount Lassen or Yellowstone. Parts of the Salton Sea basin are actually seafloor spreading centers, just like those in the deep seas, that the Colorado River has buried kilometers deep in mud. \u003ca href=\"http://www.sandiegohistory.org/journal/81winter/mud.htm\">Historical reports\u003c/a> from the 1850s until the 1907 flooding of the Salton basin describe spectacular eruptions that threw steam a thousand feet in the air. You don’t have to be in remotest Pakistan to live in an exotic and occasionally terrifying place.\u003c/p>\n\n","blocks":[],"excerpt":"The rise of a small, fuming island after a large distant quake may not be such an exotic event. Look for one when the next Big One strikes California.","status":"publish","parent":0,"modified":1704934978,"stats":{"hasAudio":false,"hasVideo":false,"hasChartOrMap":false,"iframeSrcs":[],"hasGoogleForm":false,"hasGallery":false,"hasHearkenModule":false,"hasPolis":false,"paragraphCount":13,"wordCount":636},"headData":{"title":"Pakistan's New Earthquake Island: Can It Happen Here? | KQED","description":"The rise of a small, fuming island after a large distant quake may not be such an exotic event. Look for one when the next Big One strikes California.","ogTitle":"","ogDescription":"","ogImgId":"","twTitle":"","twDescription":"","twImgId":""},"sticky":false,"path":"/science/9328/pakistans-new-earthquake-island-can-it-happen-here","audioTrackLength":null,"parsedContent":[{"type":"contentString","content":"\u003cdiv class=\"post-body\">\u003cp>\u003cp>When Pakistan was struck by a major earthquake earlier this week, one of its side effects seemed to capture the attention of the news services: several hundred miles from the shock, a small island rose above the waves of the Arabian Sea. Could America see the same thing when we get our next big earthquake? Very possibly.\u003c/p>\n\u003cfigure id=\"attachment_9329\" class=\"wp-caption aligncenter\" style=\"max-width: 640px\">\u003ca href=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/science/wp-content/uploads/sites/35/2013/09/Pakisland.jpg\" rel=\"attachment wp-att-9329\">\u003cimg loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" src=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/science/wp-content/uploads/sites/35/2013/09/Pakisland.jpg\" alt=\"Pakistan mud volcano\" width=\"640\" height=\"360\" class=\"size-full wp-image-9329\">\u003c/a>\u003cfigcaption class=\"wp-caption-text\">Pakistan’s newest island, thrust above the sea off the coast of Gwadar. Pakistan Government/AFP\u003c/figcaption>\u003c/figure>\n\u003cp>Details are sparse, but at least two new islands appeared off southern Pakistan in the hours after the distant shaking stopped. The one shown in the photo was about 100 yards long, about half as wide and about 50 feet high. It was peppered with bubbling mudpots emitting enough methane gas to be an explosive hazard.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>The signs are those of \u003ca href=\"http://geology.about.com/od/structureslandforms/ig/Depositional-Landforms/mud_volcano.htm\">mud volcanism\u003c/a>, a kind of cold eruption powered by high-pressure underground fluids. In this case the fluid would be natural gas (methane) and probably some brine along with it. The distant earthquake presumably caused this by disturbing a delicately balanced situation in which the fluids were very close to eruption already. Perhaps the gas had been seeping out in a stable way, and the extra shaking pushed it too far. Perhaps a near-shore landslide set things off. The best guess is that deeply buried beds of methane hydrate “ice” released a large amount of gas after the shaking.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Only an expensive, rapid scientific expedition can allow us to learn the real scenario, and that won’t happen—the sea will wipe the island off the map in a few months. But we can look at the general tectonic setting at the large scale, courtesy of the \u003ca href=\"http://earthquake.usgs.gov/earthquakes/map/\">U.S. Geological Survey’s earthquake viewer\u003c/a>.\u003c/p>\n\u003cfigure id=\"attachment_9330\" class=\"wp-caption aligncenter\" style=\"max-width: 625px\">\u003ca href=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/science/wp-content/uploads/sites/35/2013/09/PakEQmap.png\" rel=\"attachment wp-att-9330\">\u003cimg loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" src=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/science/wp-content/uploads/sites/35/2013/09/PakEQmap.png\" alt=\"Pakistan tectonic map\" width=\"625\" height=\"452\" class=\"size-full wp-image-9330\">\u003c/a>\u003cfigcaption class=\"wp-caption-text\">Heavy red lines are plate boundaries.\u003c/figcaption>\u003c/figure>\n\u003cp>Tuesday’s earthquake and its aftershocks appear as dots in the mountains of Baluchistan. The new island appeared at Gwadar. Tectonically, this area, known as the Makran, is being squeezed and crumpled as Arabia pushes northward into Eurasia. The natural gas in the young rocks of the Makran and the offshore sediments are free to move in this setting—it is as if the Yucatan were pushing the Gulf of Mexico shut against New Orleans, allowing the buried oil and gas (and methane hydrates) of the Gulf to escape.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003c/p>\u003c/div>","attributes":{"named":{},"numeric":[]}},{"type":"component","content":"","name":"ad","attributes":{"named":{"label":"fullwidth"},"numeric":["fullwidth"]}},{"type":"contentString","content":"\u003cdiv class=\"post-body\">\u003cp>\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>There’s no place exactly like that in the United States, where two continents are colliding. However, southern Alaska and the Santa Barbara coast are similar. Let’s look at California.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003ca href=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/science/2013/09/26/pakistans-new-earthquake-island-can-it-happen-here/califtecmap/\" rel=\"attachment wp-att-9331\">\u003cimg loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" src=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/science/wp-content/uploads/sites/35/2013/09/Califtecmap.png\" alt=\"Califtecmap\" width=\"500\" height=\"300\" class=\"aligncenter size-full wp-image-9331\">\u003c/a>\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>The Pacific plate is moving north-northwest against a bend in the San Andreas fault (the heavy red line marking the plate boundary), which is why the Transverse Ranges are rising there. The ocean basins off the Southern California coast are full of oil and gas, and the large islands of the California Continental Borderland are approaching the mainland there. \u003c/p>\n\u003cp>The last magnitude-7 earthquake to happen off Santa Barbara was in 1812. Records are very scant, of course, and short-lived islands may well have appeared at the time. We’ll know for sure when the next big one hits.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>California has many mud volcanoes in the Salton Sea area, where I took this photo.\u003c/p>\n\u003cfigure id=\"attachment_9332\" class=\"wp-caption aligncenter\" style=\"max-width: 600px\">\u003ca href=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/science/wp-content/uploads/sites/35/2013/09/Saltonmudvolcs.jpg\" rel=\"attachment wp-att-9332\">\u003cimg loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" src=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/science/wp-content/uploads/sites/35/2013/09/Saltonmudvolcs.jpg\" alt=\"California mud volcanoes\" width=\"600\" height=\"401\" class=\"size-full wp-image-9332\">\u003c/a>\u003cfigcaption class=\"wp-caption-text\">The Davis-Schrimpf mud volcano field\u003c/figcaption>\u003c/figure>\n\u003cp>\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>These are basically hydrothermal in origin, like the mudpots of Mount Lassen or Yellowstone. Parts of the Salton Sea basin are actually seafloor spreading centers, just like those in the deep seas, that the Colorado River has buried kilometers deep in mud. \u003ca href=\"http://www.sandiegohistory.org/journal/81winter/mud.htm\">Historical reports\u003c/a> from the 1850s until the 1907 flooding of the Salton basin describe spectacular eruptions that threw steam a thousand feet in the air. You don’t have to be in remotest Pakistan to live in an exotic and occasionally terrifying place.\u003c/p>\n\n\u003c/div>\u003c/p>","attributes":{"named":{},"numeric":[]}}],"link":"/science/9328/pakistans-new-earthquake-island-can-it-happen-here","authors":["6228"],"categories":["science_38"],"tags":["science_427","science_64","science_591"],"featImg":"science_9329","label":"science"},"science_8032":{"type":"posts","id":"science_8032","meta":{"index":"posts_1591205157","site":"science","id":"8032","score":null,"sort":[1378411205000]},"guestAuthors":[],"slug":"how-californias-warping-microplate-makes-its-faults-creep","title":"How California's Warping Microplate Makes Its Faults Creep","publishDate":1378411205,"format":"aside","headTitle":"How California’s Warping Microplate Makes Its Faults Creep | KQED","labelTerm":{"site":"science"},"content":"\u003cp>Last week I gave a walking tour of the Hayward fault along the Oakland-Berkeley border. Among other things, I talked about the fault’s peculiar behavior called aseismic creep, in which the two sides of the fault move slowly past each other at just a few millimeters per year without the help of earthquakes. I pointed out places where creep has been gently distorting the streets. I explained that creep doesn’t remove much earthquake energy because it only affects shallow parts of the fault that can’t store much energy anyway. But I couldn’t say much more about it because geologists studying the creep problem have lots of questions, several hypotheses, and no answers.\u003c/p>\n\u003cfigure id=\"attachment_8037\" class=\"wp-caption aligncenter\" style=\"max-width: 600px\">\u003ca href=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/science/wp-content/uploads/sites/35/2013/09/stonewallfault.jpg\" rel=\"attachment wp-att-8037\">\u003cimg loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" class=\"size-full wp-image-8037\" src=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/science/wp-content/uploads/sites/35/2013/09/stonewallfault.jpg\" alt=\"Hayward fault creep\" width=\"600\" height=\"360\">\u003c/a>\u003cfigcaption class=\"wp-caption-text\">The creeping Hayward fault crosses Oakland’s Stonewall Road in 2001. All of this has since been rebuilt. Photo by Andrew Alden\u003c/figcaption>\u003c/figure>\n\u003cp>Just days later, \u003ca href=\"http://geology.gsapubs.org/content/41/9/\">the September issue of the journal \u003cem>Geology\u003c/em>\u003c/a> came out with a paper that makes an intriguing connection between our creeping faults and slow activity on the other side of the Sierra Nevada microplate, where the Earth’s outer shell is secretly splitting apart.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>(That’s right: The heart of California—the Central Valley and the mountains that ring it—is a separate tectonic plate, bounded by fault zones all the way around. The Sierra Nevada microplate rotates slightly and moves northwest at a few millimeters per year relative to the rest of the North America plate. California really \u003cem>is\u003c/em> different from its neighbors.)\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Fault creep is quite uncommon in general, but a big central section of the San Andreas fault complex is creeping today while on either side the fault is locked, building up energy for large earthquakes like the 1906 quake in Northern California and the 1857 Fort Tejon quake in Southern California. The so-called creeping section runs from the village of Parkfield east of Paso Robles up to San Juan Bautista. Near there the Calaveras fault splits off from the San Andreas, and in turn the Hayward fault splits off from the Calaveras—and both of those faults also creep. See them shown in blue in this figure from the \u003cem>Geology\u003c/em> paper. The authors are Laetitia Le Pourhiet, a French geophysicist, and Jason Saleeby, a geologist at Caltech’s \u003ca href=\"http://www.tectonics.caltech.edu/research/\">Tectonics Observatory\u003c/a> who has studied the southern Sierra Nevada for decades.\u003c/p>\n\u003cfigure id=\"attachment_8033\" class=\"wp-caption aligncenter\" style=\"max-width: 568px\">\u003ca href=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/science/wp-content/uploads/sites/35/2013/09/fig1pourhietsaleeby.jpg\" rel=\"attachment wp-att-8033\">\u003cimg loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" class=\"size-full wp-image-8033\" src=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/science/wp-content/uploads/sites/35/2013/09/fig1pourhietsaleeby.jpg\" alt=\"Figure 1 Le Pourhiet-Saleeby paper\" width=\"568\" height=\"566\">\u003c/a>\u003cfigcaption class=\"wp-caption-text\">Figure 1 of Le Pourhiet and Saleeby, “\u003ca href=\"http://geology.gsapubs.org/content/41/9/999.abstract\">Lithospheric convective instability could induce creep along part of the San Andreas fault\u003c/a>,” \u003cem>Geology\u003c/em> v. 41, p. 999-1002 (Sept. 2013). Stars mark notable earthquakes in (north to south) 1906, 1989, 1983, 2004 and 1857.\u003c/figcaption>\u003c/figure>\n\u003cp>One of Saleeby’s most interesting lines of research is exploring how the dense rocky root of the southern Sierra broke off (delaminated) and sank into the hotter, softer mantle beneath to form a “lithospheric drip” starting about 4 million years ago. On the east side of the Sierra, the mountains responded by springing upward to create the dramatic eastern face that includes Mount Whitney, highest peak in the 48 states.\u003c/p>\n\u003cfigure id=\"attachment_8034\" class=\"wp-caption aligncenter\" style=\"max-width: 640px\">\u003ca href=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/science/wp-content/uploads/sites/35/2013/09/southernsierra.jpg\" rel=\"attachment wp-att-8034\">\u003cimg loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" class=\"size-full wp-image-8034\" src=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/science/wp-content/uploads/sites/35/2013/09/southernsierra.jpg\" alt=\"Southern Sierra Nevada\" width=\"640\" height=\"360\">\u003c/a>\u003cfigcaption class=\"wp-caption-text\">East face of the southern Sierra Nevada at Owens Lake. Photo courtesy \u003ca href=\"http://www.flickr.com/photos/matthigh/\">Matthew Lee High\u003c/a> of Flickr via Creative Commons license\u003c/figcaption>\u003c/figure>\n\u003cp>The “Big Drip”, if I may call it that, is bending and twisting the rest of our microplate. On its west side, the drip is still attached and pulling down on the crust. The result is that the southern Great Valley is at its widest and deepest there, in the Tulare geologic basin. If you think of the Earth’s crust across central California as an air mattress floating in a pool, imagine a swimmer grabbing it in the middle from below and pulling down. The east end (the Sierra) bends upward and the middle (the Tulare basin) bends down.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>[ad fullwidth]\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>What happens farther west? Le Pourhiet did the computer modeling to show that the west side of the microplate arches upward by a hundred feet or so. That side is pinned against the San Andreas fault so it can’t simply break and spring upward like the eastern Sierra, which is being pulled away from Nevada.\u003c/p>\n\u003cfigure id=\"attachment_8035\" class=\"wp-caption aligncenter\" style=\"max-width: 546px\">\u003ca href=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/science/wp-content/uploads/sites/35/2013/09/fig3pourhietsaleeby.png\" rel=\"attachment wp-att-8035\">\u003cimg loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" class=\"size-full wp-image-8035\" src=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/science/wp-content/uploads/sites/35/2013/09/fig3pourhietsaleeby.png\" alt=\"Sierra Nevada microplate warpage\" width=\"546\" height=\"450\">\u003c/a>\u003cfigcaption class=\"wp-caption-text\">Part of Figure 3 of the \u003cem>Geology\u003c/em> paper; colors show the calculated vertical movements in response to the Big Drip.\u003c/figcaption>\u003c/figure>\n\u003cp>When the authors fed that result into a model of the San Andreas fault’s physics, the model accounted for the size and nature of the creeping section. There, most of the fault between the surface and its base at around 15 kilometers depth turns out weak and slippery, and only a narrow band of rock in the middle of that range has enough friction to gather a lot of strain energy. For the creeping section the model suggests a pattern of earthquakes no bigger than magnitude 6 or so, plus lots of creep. (In this picture the Bay Area is near the edge of that pattern, so while our faults creep they still are considered able to clobber us with magnitude-7 events.)\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>So is any of this a scientific fact? Not yet; it’s just another good hypothesis that fits a variety of data but needs refinement. Scientific consensus is when everyone accepts a good hypothesis and moves ahead because they’ve run out of good counterarguments. We definitely haven’t reached that point for the San Andreas fault system. In the meantime, I can show you examples of Hayward fault creep \u003ca href=\"http://science.kqed.org/quest/2011/05/05/geological-outings-around-the-bay-a-visit-to-the-hayward-fault/\">in Hayward\u003c/a>, \u003ca href=\"http://science.kqed.org/quest/2013/04/18/gallegos-winery-and-the-hayward-fault/\">in Fremont\u003c/a> and \u003ca href=\"http://science.kqed.org/quest/2011/10/06/geological-outings-around-the-bay-point-pinole-and-the-hayward-fault/\">in Pinole\u003c/a>.\u003c/p>\n\n","blocks":[],"excerpt":"A tectonic \"Big Drip\" beneath the southern Sierra Nevada is connected to the creeping faults of Northern California in a new paper published in \u003ci>Geology\u003c/i>.","status":"publish","parent":0,"modified":1704935119,"stats":{"hasAudio":false,"hasVideo":false,"hasChartOrMap":false,"iframeSrcs":[],"hasGoogleForm":false,"hasGallery":false,"hasHearkenModule":false,"hasPolis":false,"paragraphCount":11,"wordCount":922},"headData":{"title":"How California's Warping Microplate Makes Its Faults Creep | KQED","description":"A tectonic "Big Drip" beneath the southern Sierra Nevada is connected to the creeping faults of Northern California in a new paper published in Geology.","ogTitle":"","ogDescription":"","ogImgId":"","twTitle":"","twDescription":"","twImgId":""},"sticky":false,"path":"/science/8032/how-californias-warping-microplate-makes-its-faults-creep","audioTrackLength":null,"parsedContent":[{"type":"contentString","content":"\u003cdiv class=\"post-body\">\u003cp>\u003cp>Last week I gave a walking tour of the Hayward fault along the Oakland-Berkeley border. Among other things, I talked about the fault’s peculiar behavior called aseismic creep, in which the two sides of the fault move slowly past each other at just a few millimeters per year without the help of earthquakes. I pointed out places where creep has been gently distorting the streets. I explained that creep doesn’t remove much earthquake energy because it only affects shallow parts of the fault that can’t store much energy anyway. But I couldn’t say much more about it because geologists studying the creep problem have lots of questions, several hypotheses, and no answers.\u003c/p>\n\u003cfigure id=\"attachment_8037\" class=\"wp-caption aligncenter\" style=\"max-width: 600px\">\u003ca href=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/science/wp-content/uploads/sites/35/2013/09/stonewallfault.jpg\" rel=\"attachment wp-att-8037\">\u003cimg loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" class=\"size-full wp-image-8037\" src=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/science/wp-content/uploads/sites/35/2013/09/stonewallfault.jpg\" alt=\"Hayward fault creep\" width=\"600\" height=\"360\">\u003c/a>\u003cfigcaption class=\"wp-caption-text\">The creeping Hayward fault crosses Oakland’s Stonewall Road in 2001. All of this has since been rebuilt. Photo by Andrew Alden\u003c/figcaption>\u003c/figure>\n\u003cp>Just days later, \u003ca href=\"http://geology.gsapubs.org/content/41/9/\">the September issue of the journal \u003cem>Geology\u003c/em>\u003c/a> came out with a paper that makes an intriguing connection between our creeping faults and slow activity on the other side of the Sierra Nevada microplate, where the Earth’s outer shell is secretly splitting apart.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>(That’s right: The heart of California—the Central Valley and the mountains that ring it—is a separate tectonic plate, bounded by fault zones all the way around. The Sierra Nevada microplate rotates slightly and moves northwest at a few millimeters per year relative to the rest of the North America plate. California really \u003cem>is\u003c/em> different from its neighbors.)\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Fault creep is quite uncommon in general, but a big central section of the San Andreas fault complex is creeping today while on either side the fault is locked, building up energy for large earthquakes like the 1906 quake in Northern California and the 1857 Fort Tejon quake in Southern California. The so-called creeping section runs from the village of Parkfield east of Paso Robles up to San Juan Bautista. Near there the Calaveras fault splits off from the San Andreas, and in turn the Hayward fault splits off from the Calaveras—and both of those faults also creep. See them shown in blue in this figure from the \u003cem>Geology\u003c/em> paper. The authors are Laetitia Le Pourhiet, a French geophysicist, and Jason Saleeby, a geologist at Caltech’s \u003ca href=\"http://www.tectonics.caltech.edu/research/\">Tectonics Observatory\u003c/a> who has studied the southern Sierra Nevada for decades.\u003c/p>\n\u003cfigure id=\"attachment_8033\" class=\"wp-caption aligncenter\" style=\"max-width: 568px\">\u003ca href=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/science/wp-content/uploads/sites/35/2013/09/fig1pourhietsaleeby.jpg\" rel=\"attachment wp-att-8033\">\u003cimg loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" class=\"size-full wp-image-8033\" src=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/science/wp-content/uploads/sites/35/2013/09/fig1pourhietsaleeby.jpg\" alt=\"Figure 1 Le Pourhiet-Saleeby paper\" width=\"568\" height=\"566\">\u003c/a>\u003cfigcaption class=\"wp-caption-text\">Figure 1 of Le Pourhiet and Saleeby, “\u003ca href=\"http://geology.gsapubs.org/content/41/9/999.abstract\">Lithospheric convective instability could induce creep along part of the San Andreas fault\u003c/a>,” \u003cem>Geology\u003c/em> v. 41, p. 999-1002 (Sept. 2013). Stars mark notable earthquakes in (north to south) 1906, 1989, 1983, 2004 and 1857.\u003c/figcaption>\u003c/figure>\n\u003cp>One of Saleeby’s most interesting lines of research is exploring how the dense rocky root of the southern Sierra broke off (delaminated) and sank into the hotter, softer mantle beneath to form a “lithospheric drip” starting about 4 million years ago. On the east side of the Sierra, the mountains responded by springing upward to create the dramatic eastern face that includes Mount Whitney, highest peak in the 48 states.\u003c/p>\n\u003cfigure id=\"attachment_8034\" class=\"wp-caption aligncenter\" style=\"max-width: 640px\">\u003ca href=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/science/wp-content/uploads/sites/35/2013/09/southernsierra.jpg\" rel=\"attachment wp-att-8034\">\u003cimg loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" class=\"size-full wp-image-8034\" src=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/science/wp-content/uploads/sites/35/2013/09/southernsierra.jpg\" alt=\"Southern Sierra Nevada\" width=\"640\" height=\"360\">\u003c/a>\u003cfigcaption class=\"wp-caption-text\">East face of the southern Sierra Nevada at Owens Lake. Photo courtesy \u003ca href=\"http://www.flickr.com/photos/matthigh/\">Matthew Lee High\u003c/a> of Flickr via Creative Commons license\u003c/figcaption>\u003c/figure>\n\u003cp>The “Big Drip”, if I may call it that, is bending and twisting the rest of our microplate. On its west side, the drip is still attached and pulling down on the crust. The result is that the southern Great Valley is at its widest and deepest there, in the Tulare geologic basin. If you think of the Earth’s crust across central California as an air mattress floating in a pool, imagine a swimmer grabbing it in the middle from below and pulling down. The east end (the Sierra) bends upward and the middle (the Tulare basin) bends down.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003c/p>\u003c/div>","attributes":{"named":{},"numeric":[]}},{"type":"component","content":"","name":"ad","attributes":{"named":{"label":"fullwidth"},"numeric":["fullwidth"]}},{"type":"contentString","content":"\u003cdiv class=\"post-body\">\u003cp>\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>What happens farther west? Le Pourhiet did the computer modeling to show that the west side of the microplate arches upward by a hundred feet or so. That side is pinned against the San Andreas fault so it can’t simply break and spring upward like the eastern Sierra, which is being pulled away from Nevada.\u003c/p>\n\u003cfigure id=\"attachment_8035\" class=\"wp-caption aligncenter\" style=\"max-width: 546px\">\u003ca href=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/science/wp-content/uploads/sites/35/2013/09/fig3pourhietsaleeby.png\" rel=\"attachment wp-att-8035\">\u003cimg loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" class=\"size-full wp-image-8035\" src=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/science/wp-content/uploads/sites/35/2013/09/fig3pourhietsaleeby.png\" alt=\"Sierra Nevada microplate warpage\" width=\"546\" height=\"450\">\u003c/a>\u003cfigcaption class=\"wp-caption-text\">Part of Figure 3 of the \u003cem>Geology\u003c/em> paper; colors show the calculated vertical movements in response to the Big Drip.\u003c/figcaption>\u003c/figure>\n\u003cp>When the authors fed that result into a model of the San Andreas fault’s physics, the model accounted for the size and nature of the creeping section. There, most of the fault between the surface and its base at around 15 kilometers depth turns out weak and slippery, and only a narrow band of rock in the middle of that range has enough friction to gather a lot of strain energy. For the creeping section the model suggests a pattern of earthquakes no bigger than magnitude 6 or so, plus lots of creep. (In this picture the Bay Area is near the edge of that pattern, so while our faults creep they still are considered able to clobber us with magnitude-7 events.)\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>So is any of this a scientific fact? Not yet; it’s just another good hypothesis that fits a variety of data but needs refinement. Scientific consensus is when everyone accepts a good hypothesis and moves ahead because they’ve run out of good counterarguments. We definitely haven’t reached that point for the San Andreas fault system. In the meantime, I can show you examples of Hayward fault creep \u003ca href=\"http://science.kqed.org/quest/2011/05/05/geological-outings-around-the-bay-a-visit-to-the-hayward-fault/\">in Hayward\u003c/a>, \u003ca href=\"http://science.kqed.org/quest/2013/04/18/gallegos-winery-and-the-hayward-fault/\">in Fremont\u003c/a> and \u003ca href=\"http://science.kqed.org/quest/2011/10/06/geological-outings-around-the-bay-point-pinole-and-the-hayward-fault/\">in Pinole\u003c/a>.\u003c/p>\n\n\u003c/div>\u003c/p>","attributes":{"named":{},"numeric":[]}}],"link":"/science/8032/how-californias-warping-microplate-makes-its-faults-creep","authors":["6228"],"categories":["science_38"],"tags":["science_5178","science_654","science_591","science_546","science_109"],"featImg":"science_8034","label":"science"}},"programsReducer":{"possible":{"id":"possible","title":"Possible","info":"Possible is hosted by entrepreneur Reid Hoffman and writer Aria Finger. 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Hosted by journalists of color, the show tackles the subject of race head-on, exploring how it impacts every part of society — from politics and pop culture to history, sports and more.\u003cbr />\u003cbr />\u003cem>Life Kit\u003c/em>, which will be in the second part of the hour, guides you through spaces and feelings no one prepares you for — from finances to mental health, from workplace microaggressions to imposter syndrome, from relationships to parenting. The show features experts with real world experience and shares their knowledge. 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